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BUDDHISM, 

IN ITS CONNEXION WITH BRAHMANISM 
AND HINDUISM, 

JlSD 

IN ITS CONTRAST WITH 
CHRISTIANITY. 



M 

SIR MOWER MOMKR. WILLIAMS, K.C.I.R, 




LONDON: 

JOHN MURRAY Al.HKMARLE STREET. 
1HH0. 




r.UDIHI ISM. 




OjfOTb 

MCI ACC KART. rt lftn.lt 10 TIIK rKlttJ/.tTT 




B U D D H I S M, 

IN ITS CONNEXION WITH BRAHMANISM 
AND HINDUISM, 

AND 

IN ITS CONTRAST WITH 
CHRISTIANITY. 




M.A. MrtV. HA»- •»* »*»• M II U »>T till I'M* 

r*t/M*rTA tvc*. l«.U •*' t*i I’MVUnb olTIl K<n, »!••%- mv 

T4« AAIATIT u n til- III ». M W. a«D *'*«•*, • •»* t*»»: ••»** 

numiui« iuii Ai-Mitiwur aMIIAKA, *•♦!«* 

»r unMAH. am» un Hiu/ttf V iuu-»ka 



nuuur. 



•V 

Silt MONIER MON I K IS -WILLI A M S. K.C.I.E., 



I.OXOON: 

JOHN Ml’ HR AY. M.IiKMAULK STREET. 
IKS!). 



[All rJs- 1 1 - ] 




PREFACE. 



The 1 Duff Lectures' for iSSS were delivered by me 
at Edinburgh in the month of March. In introducing 
my subject, I spoke to the following effect : — 

‘ I wish to exprcft* my deep sense of the responsibility 
which the writing of these Lectures has laid upon me, 
and my earnest desire that they may, by their useful- 
ness, prove in some degree worthy of the great mis- 
sionary whose name they bear. 

' Dr. Duff was a man of power, who left his own 
foot-print so deeply impressed on the soil of Bengal, 
that its traces are never likely to lx? effaced, and still 
serve to encourage less ardent spirits, who are striving 
to imitate his example in the same field of labour. 

• But not only is the impress of his vigorous per- 
sonality still fresh in Bengal. He has earned an en- 
during reputation throughout India and the United 
Kingdom, as the prince of educational missionaries. 
He was in all that he undertook an enthusiastic ami 
indefatigable workman, of whom, if of any human 
being, it might be truly Slid, that, when .-.died upon 
to quit the sphere of his laWii*. " he needed not t*. !-■ 
ashamed." No one cm have travelled much in India 




VI 



PREFACE. 



without having observed how wonderfully the results 
of his indomitable energy and fervid eloquence in the 
cause of Truth wait on the memory of his work every- 
where. Monuments may he erected and lectureships 
founded to perpetuate his name and testify to his 
victories over ditlicultics which few other men could 
have overcome, but better than these will l>e the living 
testimony of successive generations of IlindQ men and 
women, whose growth and progress in true enlighten- 
ment will be due to the seed which he planted, and 
to which God has given the increase.' 

I said a few more words expressive of my hope that 
the ' Life of Dr. Duff' 1 would be read and pondered 
by every student destined for work of any kind in our 
Indian empire, and to that biography I refer all who 
are unacquainted with the particulars of the labours of 
a man to whom Scotland has assigned a place in the 
foremost rank of her most eminent Evangelists. 

I now proceed to explain the process by which these 
Lectures have gradually outgrown the limits required 
by the Duff Trustees. 

H lion I addressed myself to the carrying out of their 
wishes— communicated to me by Mr. \V. Pirie Duff— 
I had no intention of undertaking non than a concise 
account of a subject which 1 had I ecu studying for 
many years. I conceived it possible to compress into 

1 • Lit* c/ Alexander Duff. I>.D., LL.I)., by George Smith, GI F . 
LI..D.’ London: Bodder and Stoughton; published Gr»l in 1879. 
and a popular edition in 1881. 




PREFACE. 



vii 

six Lectures u scholarly sketch of what may be called 
true Buddhism, — that is, the Buddhism of the Pi^kas 
or Pali texts which am now being edited by the Pali 
Text Society, ami Horne of which have been translated 
in the ' Sacred Books of the East.’ It soon, however, 
became apparent to me tluit to write an account of 
Buddhism which would bo worthy of the great Indian 
missionary, I ought to exhibit it in its connexion with 
Brahmanism and Hinduism and even with Jainism, 
and in its contrast with Christianity. Then, as I pro- 
ceeded, I began to feel that to do justice to my subject 
I should 1 m* compelled to enlarge the range of my re- 
searches. so as to embmee some of the later phases and 
modern developments of Buddhism. This led me to 
undertake a more careful study of Kooppen'a Lamaisnius 
than I had before tliought necessary. Furthermore, 
I felt it my duty to study attentively numerous trea- 
tises on Northern Buddhism, which 1 had before read 
in a cursory manner. I even tliought it incumbent on 
me to look a little into the Tibetan language, of which 
I was before wholly ignorant.. 

I need scarce ly explain further the process of ex- 
pansion through which the present work has passed. 
A conviction took possession of my mind, that any en- 
deavour to give even an outline of the whole subject 
of Buddhism in six Lectures, would be rather like tin- 
effort of a foolish man trying to paint a panorama «.1‘ 
London on a sheet of note-paper. Hence the «.\pui».-'um 
of six Lectures into eighteen, and it will l«e seen at 




PREFACE. 



viii 

once that many of these eighteen are far too long to have 
been delivered in exlento. In point of fact, by mi 
arrangement with tho Trustees, only a certain portion 
of any Lecture was delivered orally. The present work 
is rather a treatise on Buddhism printed and published 
in memory of I)r. Duff 

I need not encumber the Preface with u re statement 
of the rcasoiks which have made the ehieidiition of an 
intricate subject almost hopelessly difficult. They have 
been stated in the Introductory Lecture (pp. 13, 14). 

Moreover tho plan of the present volume has been 
there set. forth (see p. 1 7). 

I may possibly be asked by weary readers why I 
have ventured to add another tributary to the too 
swollen stream of treatises on Buddhism i or some may 
employ another metaphor and inquire why I have 
troubled myself to toil and plod over a path already 
well travelled over and trodden down ? My reply in 
that I think I can claim for my own work an indi- 
viduality which separates it from that of others— an 
individuality which may probably commend it to 
thoughtful students of Buddhism as helping to dear 
a thorny road, and introduce some little order and 
coherence into the chaotic confusion of Buddhistic 
ideas. 

At any rate I request permission to draw attention 
to the following points, which, I think, may invest my 
researches with a distinctive character of their own. 

In the first place I have been able to avail myself of 




preface. 



ix 



the latest publications of the Pali Text Society, and to 
consult many recent works which previous writers on 
Buddhism liuvo not had at their command. 

Secondly, I have striven to combine scientific ac- 
curacy# with a popular exposition sufficiently readable 
to satisfy the wants of the cultured English-speaking 
world — a world crowded with intelligent readers who 
take an increasing interest in Buddhism, and yet know 
nothing of Sanskrit, Pali, and Tibetan. 

Thirdly, I have aimed at effecting what no other 
English Orientalist, has, to my knowledge, ever ac- 
complished. 1 have endeavoured to deal with u com- 
plex subject iis a whole, and to present in one volume a 
comprehensive survey of the entire range of Buddhism 
from its earliest origin in India to its latest modern 
developments in other Asiatic countries. 

Fourthly, I have brought to the study of Buddhimn 
and its sacred language Pali, u life-long preparatory 
study of Brtthmanism and its sacred language San- 
skrit. 

Fifthly. I have on throe occasions travelled through 
the sacred land of Buddhism (p. 21), and have carried on 
my investigations personally in the place of its origin, 
as well as in Ceylon and on tho borders of Tibet. 

Lastly, I have depicted Buddhism from the stand- 
point of a believer in Christianity, who has shown, by 
hi* other works on Eastern religions, an enrnust desire 
to give them credit for all the good they contain. 

In regard to this lust point, I shall probably l>c told 




v 



PREFACE. 



by some enthusiastic admirers of Buddhism, that my 
prepossessions anil predilections- -inherited with my 
Christianity— have, in spite of my desire t<» bo just, 
distorted my view of a system with which J have no 
sympathy. To this I can only reply, that in y con 
seiousness of my own prepossessions lias made mo the 
more sensitively anxious to exhibit Buddhism under 
its lest aspects, as well us under its womt. An atten- 
tive perused of my last Lecture (see p. 537) will, I hope, 
make it evident that I have at least done everything 
in my power to dismiss all prejudice from my mind, 
and to assume and maintain the attitude of an im- 
partial judge. And to this end I have taken nothing 
on trust, or at second hand. I have studied Pali, as 
I have the other Indian Prakrits, on my own account, 
and independently. I have not accepted unreservedly 
any man's interpretation of the original Buddhist texts, 
and have endeavoured to verify for myself all doubtful 
statements and translations which occur in existing 
treatises. Of course I owe much to modem Pali scholars, 
and writers on Buddhism, and to tho translators of the 
' Snored Books of the East but 1 have frequently felt 
couqiclled to form an independent opinion of niy own. 

The translations given in the ' Snored Book- of the 
East' — good as they generally are — have seemed to 
me occasionally misleading. I may mention as an 
instance the constant employment by the translators 
of the word * Ordination ’ for the ceremonies of admis- 
sion to the Buddhist monkhood (see pp. 76-80 of the 




FBKFACE. 



XI 



present volume). I have ventured in such instances 
to give what has appeared to mo u more Riiitahlc 
equivalent for the J’iili. On the tame principle I have 
avoided all needless employment of Christian termin- 
ology and Bible-language to express Buddhist ideas. 

For example, 1 have in most cases excluded such 
words as ' sin,’ ‘ holiness,' 1 faith,’ ' trinity,’ 1 priest ' from 
my explanations of the Buddhist creed, as wholly un- 
suitable. 

I regret that want of space has compelled me to 
curtail my oUervations on Jainism— the present repre- 
sentative of Buddhistic doctrines in India (sec p. 529.) 
I hope to enter more fully on this subject hereafter. 

The names of authors to whom students of Bud- 
dhism are indebted are given in my first Lecture (pp. 
1 4 . 15)* Wo all owe much to Childers. My own 
thanks arc specially due to General Sir Alexander 
Cunningham, to Professor E. B. Cowell of Cambridge, 
Professor Rhys Davids, Dr. Oklenberg, Dr. Rost. 
Dr. Morris, Dr. Wenzel, who have aided ino with their 
opinions, whenever I have thought it right to consult 
them. Dr. Rost, C.I.E., of the India Office, is also 
entitled to my warmest acknowledgments for having 
placed at my disposal various subsidiary works bearing 
on Buddhism, some of which belong to his own Library. 

My obligations to Mr. llocy’s translation of Dr. 
Olden! urg's ' Buddlui,’ to the translations of the travels 
of the Chinese pilgrims by Professor I-oggo, Mr. Beal, 
M. Abel Rctnusnt, and M. Stanislas Julieii, to M. Hue’s 




PREFACE. 



xii 

travels, and to Mr. Scott's ‘Borman,’ will lie evident, and 
have been generally acknowledged in niy notes. 1 am 
particularly grateful to Mr. Surat Chandra Du*, C.I.K., 
for the information contained in his Report and for the 
instruction which I received from him personally while 
prosecuting my inquiries at Darjiling. 

I have felt compelled to abbreviate nearly all my 
quotations, and therefore occasionally to alter the 
phraseology. Hence I have thought it right to mark 
them by a different type without inverted oommas. 

With regard to transliteration I must refer the student 
to the rules for pronunciation given at p. xxxi. They 
conform to the rules given in my Sanskrit Grammar and 
Dictionary. Like Dr. Oldenberg, 1 have preferred to 
substitute Sanskrit terminations in a for the Pali o. In 
Tibetan I have constantly consulted Juschke, but have 
riot followed his system of transliteration. 

In conclusion, I may fitly draw attention to the 
engravings of objects, some of which were brought by 
myself from Buddhist countries. They are described 
in the list of illustrations (see p. xxix), and will, I trust, 
give value to the present volume. It has seemed to 
me a duty to make ilmc of every available appliance for 
throwing light on the obscurities of a difficult subject; 
and, as these Lectures embrace the whole range of 
Buddhism, I have adopted as a frontispiece a portrait 
of Buddha which exhibits Buddhism in its receptivity 
and in ita readiness to adopt serpent-worship, or any 
other superstition of the races which it strove to convert. 




PREFACE. 



XIII 



On the other hand, the Wheel, with the Tri-ratna and the 
Lotus (pp. 5 2i, 522), is engraved on the title-page as 
the best representative symbol of early Buddhism. It is 
taken from a Buddhist soulpturo at Amar’tvati engraved 
for Mr. Ferguson's 'Tree and Serpent- worship ’ (p. 237). 

The portrait which faces page 74 is well worthy of 
attention as illustrating the connexion ' between Bud- 

1 A refers* to pages u , 226, 232 of the following Lector*, will 
™ Uuf *Keh I wish to illurtrnto clearer. In un, 

mm«o B of tho Buddha the robe U drawn over both shoollera, a, ip ,he 
portrait of tin- living SsnnyfoiL Then mark other pnrtieuUrs in tiro 
portrait :-<•«. the ItudrSkfhn re.ary round the neck (we ' Brthm.ni.ni 
,r ' 1 'tuiduum/ p. 6;). Then in front of the raiteil ae.t of the Snnnjlsl 
.re certain cweraoniul implement*. Pint, oh*ne the K.n.imdnlu.or 
water-gourd, near the right Imrel comer of the seat. Next, in front 
of the sent. «. .ho right hand „f «Le figure, i. the Vp».piira-a 
Bid, ary mwl to he uwd with the K.nmndJu. Then, in the middle 
I. the Ytare-pfttra or copper vowel, Bird un the left the P.nrfa-pllr. 
with the Ad. in anl (are ‘ Brlhnutiim ore! Hinddun,' pp. «oi, ,o»>. 
Nrar the left lund corner of the wot .re the «-*-leu clc«a Fin.Uy. 
there is tho Dam!. or at»ffheld in the left hand, »nd need by a 8nnnyi,I 

“ Jrfrnce »g«iiiet evil spirits, much a. the Itorj* (or Vajra) i< used 
by ^ Northern Buddhist monks (see p. 323 erf the prewot volume). 
HiU mystical staff ia a Umbu with eix knots, pos-iWy .yniholical of 
nix way. (Gati) or .Ut.s of life, through which it U Miffed that every 
being may have to migrate--, belief common to both Brahmanism ,nd 
Buddhism (we p. 122 of thin volume). The »t*0i« called Su-darsou (a 
name for Vishnu'. Cnkra). and ia daily worshipped for the preservation 
of ite myaterioua powers. Tho myetao white roll which begin, just 
.bore the left hand and ends before the left knot is railed the Uk-hmi- 
vatra, or nuapicious covering. The proofing piece of cloth folded in 
tho form of an axo (Paraeu) reprcenls the weapon of Pirnau-Ilflmn, 
one of the iiic.ni.ticina of Vishriu (w< pp. 110, 270 of ' IlrOhm.iusiu 
.ml Hinduism ') with which he aubdtud tlw rnemica of the I'lihnmiw. 
With lhi> ao-c ulled axo may be cuutra>U.l tike Buddha: weapon for 
keeping off the powers of evil {engraved at p. 352). 




.XIV 



rBRPACR. 



dhism nnd Briihinatiiam. It is from a recently-taken 
photograph of Mr. GaurlAu'ikar Uduy-Simkar, C.S.I. 
— a well-known and distinguished Briilmmn of BIhui- 
nagnr — who (with Mr. JVrcivnl) administered the State 
during the minority of the present enlightened Maha- 
raja. Like the Buddha of old. he has renounced the 
world— that is, lie lias liecome a Sannyfuti, and is chiefly 
engaged in incditution. Ho has consequently dropped 
the title C.S.I., and taken the religious title — Sviimi 
Sri Sa&idaiuinda-Sara&vati. His son, Mr. Vijay-Saiikar 
Gouri-ftankar, kindly sent me the photograph, and with 
his permission I have had it engraved. 

It will bo easily understood that, as a great portion 
of the following pages had to bo delivered in the form 
of Lectures, occasional repetitions and recapitulations 
were unavoidable, but 1 trust I shall not lie amenable 
to the charge of repeating anything for the sake of 
•padding.’ I shall, with more justice, be accused of 
■cramming,' in the sense of attempting to force too 
much information into a single volume. 

Janiuxrf i, I ££9. 



POSTSCRIPT. 

Since writing the foregoing prefatory remarks, I hove 
observed with much concern that a prevalent error, in 
regard to Buddhism, is still persistently propagated. 




ERROR IN REGARD TO PREVALENCE OF BUDDHISM. XV 



It us categorically stated in a newspaper report of 
a quite recent lecture, that out of the world’s popula- 
tion of about 1500 millions at least 500 millions arc 
Buddhists, and that Buddhism numbers more adherents 
than any other religion on the surface of the globe. 

Almost every European writer on Buddhism, of late 
years, bos assisted in giving currency to this utterly 
erroneous calculation, and it ia high time that an attempt 
should be made to dissipate a serious misconception. 

It is forgotten that more sympathizers with Bud- 
dhism, who occasionally conform to Buddhistic prac- 
tices, are not true Buddhists. In China the great 
majority are firttt of all Confucianiste and then either 
Taoists or Buddhists or both. In Japan Confucianism 
and Shintoism co-exist with Buddhism. In some other 
Buddhist countries a kind of Shamanism is practically 
dominant The best authorities (including the Oxford 
Professor of Chinese, as stated in the Introduction to 
his excellent work • The Travels of Fa-hien ') aro of 
opinion that there are not more than 100 millions of 
real Buddhists in the world, and that Christianity with 
its 430 to 450 millions of adherents has now the nu- 
merical preponderance over all other religions. I am 
entirely of the same opinion. I hold that the Bud- 
dhism, described in the following pages, contained 
within itself, from the earliest times, the germs of 
disease, decay, and death (see p. 537). iiikI that its 
present condition is one of rapidly increasing disinte- 
gration and decline. 




xvi Er.non in krga»d to prevalence of iiudiuiism. 



We must not forget that Buddhism lets ilisap|»«nwl 
from India proper, although it dominate!* in Ceylon and 
Burma, and although a few Buddhist travellers tin< I their 
way back to the laud of its origin and sojourn there. 

Indeed, if I were called upon to givo a rough 
comparative numerical estimate of* the six chief re- 
ligions systems of the world, I should he inclined, on 
the whole, to regard Confucianism as constituting, next 
to Christianity, the most numerically prevalent creed. 
We have to bear in mind the immense populations, both 
in China and Japan, whose chief creed is Confucianism. 

Professor Legge informs me that Dr. Happer — uu 
American Presbyterian Missionary of about 45 years 
standing, who has gone carefully into the statistics of 
Buddhism — reckons only ?o millions of Buddhists in 
China, and not more than 72J millions in the whole of 
Asia. Ilr. Mapper states that, if the Chinese were re- 
quired to class themselves as Confucianists or Buddhists 
or Tioists, 4 -' lbs, if not -.V.ths, of them would, in his 
opinion, claim to he designated as Confucioiiists. 

In all probability his estimate of the number of Bud- 
dhists in t'biiia is too low, but the Chinese lunliissador 
bi". with whom Professor Legge olioe had a Conversa- 
tion oil this subject, ridiculed the view that they were 
as numerous ius the Confucuuiiets. 

Undeniably, as it seems to me, the next place after 
Christianity and Confucianism should be given to 
Brahmanism and Hinduism, which are not really two 
syHtema but practically one; the latter being merely 




RUBOR IN It BOARD TO l'RRVALE.VCE i>F BUDDHISM. XVU 



an expansion of the former, modified by contact with 
Buddhism. 

Brahmanism, ns I have elsewhere shown, is nothing 
but spiritual Pantheism ; that is, a belief in the univer- 
sal diffusion of an impersonal Spirit (called BrOlimln or 
BrflhinS) — ns the only really existing Essence — and in 
its manifesting itself in Mind and in countless material 
forces and forms, including gods, demons, men. and 
animals, which, alter fulfilling their course, must ulti- 
mately be ro-ataorbed into tile ODu impersonal Essence 
and be again evolved in cudlesj evolution and dissolution. 

Hinduism, with its worship of Vishnu ami Siva, is 
based on this pantheistic doctrine, hut the majority of 
the llindfls aro merely observers of Brahnianieal insti- 
tutions with their accompanying Hindu caste usages. 
If, however, we employ the term Hindu in its widest 
acceptation (omitting only all Isliimized Hindus) we 
nmy safely affirm that the adherents of Hinduism have 
reached an aggregate of nearly 200 millions. In the 
opinion of Sir William Wilson Hunter, they are still 
rapidly increasing, both by excess of births ovor deaths 
and by accret ions from more backward systems of belief. 

Probably Buddhism has a right to the fourth place 
in the scale of numerical comparison. At any rate the 
number of Buddhists can scarcely he calculated at less 
than 100 millions. 

In regard to .Muhammadanism, this creed should 
not, I think, be placed higher than fifth in the enu- 
meration. Iu its purest form it ought to be called 

b 




xviii rcRRon tv regard to prevalence of buddhism. 

Islam, ami in tluit form it in a mere ilislorUvI copy of 
Judaism. 

The Empress of India, ii* i* well known, rules over 
more Muhammadans limn any other potentate in tin- 
world. Probably the Musalnian |>opulation of the 
whole of India now numben* 55 million*. 

As to the number of Muhammadans in the Turkish 
empire, there are no very trustworthy data to guide us, 
but the aggregate is believed to he about 14 millions : 
while Africa can scarcely reckon more than that number, 
even if Egypt he included. 

The sixth system, Taoism (the system of Lao-tsze), 
according to Professor Legge, should rank numerical I v 
after both Muhammadanism and Buddhism. 

Of course Jainism (p. 529) and Zoroastrianism (the 
religion of the Parsis) are too numerically insignificant 
to occupy places in the above comparison, 

It is possible that a careful census might result in 
a more favourable estimate of the number of Buddhists 
in the world, than I have here submitted ; hut at all 
events it may safely be alleged that, even as a form 
of popular religion, Buddhism is gradually losing its 
vitality — gradually loosening it.s hold on the wu-t popu- 
lations once loyal to its rule ; nay, that the time is 
rapidly approaching when its cn|iacity for resistance 
must give way before the mighty forces which aru 
destined in the end to sweep it from the earth. 

M. M.-W. 



88 Onwow Ounn* Uimxy 

Jmmary i fc 1889. 




CONTENTS. 



iao* 

VMM 

I^MtKript ou the common error in regard (o tie comparative 

prcv»lfiK# of Buddhism in (lie world xiv 

Li»i of Illiutratioo* xxi x 

Ilalco for Pronunciation xxxi 

1 ‘nxinnciollon of Buddha, etc. Addcmlu xml Corrigenda . xxxi. 

lecture i. 

IxTunDCCTORV Oll-WIVATIONS. 

Buddhism in its relation lo lirOlmituiMiii. Various sects in 
BitUimnnbin. Croodofth" dhlitury Hindu. UiMof wopticimi 
ami infidelity. Mntn ialiMic school of thought. Origin of 
Buddhism ami Joininn Mouyiidedn«* of Buddhitm. Hu com- 
plexity. Loltoam of various scholars. Division* of the subject. 

Thn Buddha. Iiii Law, hi* Oi.lor of Monk-. Nottliero Buddhism l-i j 

LECTURE II. 

Tier. Buddha a* a r>:B&oxAL Tkachxb. 

The ltaddha'i biogmphy. Ih>te of hi. birth ami death. His 
Iiamn. epithets, and title. Story of (lie four visions. Birth of 
the Buddha's non. The BotMlia leans kii home. Hin life at 
lUja-gyiha. Ilia study of Brihmanical philosophy. Uiarexcnuial 
fait, llii temptation by Mara, lie attain! perfect enlighten- 
ment. The Bodhi-trre. Buddha nnd Muhnmmad compared. 

Tlio Buddha's proceedings after his enlightenment. Hu fimt 
teaching nt Benares. First lericon. Effict of tint teaching. 

Hin find sixty iidt*wBnriea. His flre-H-rmoo. lli- eighty gnat 
dUcipL-a. Hi- two thief and sixteen lending disciple*. HU forty 
live years of preaching and itineration. Hi* death and U-t n ord«. 
Character of the Buddlin'e teaching. llit lathed illustrated l.y 

an epitome of one of Inn farablon 18-31 

b 2 




CONTENTS. 



XX 



LECTURE HI. 

The Djiaema oh Law ami S« jiihturkm o y Bciiihium. 

Origin of tl * BuddhUt Law < DliarmaJ. Buddhist scripture* 
rot like the Veda. First council (it Uftja-;»Tiltt. KAwyap* 
chc*nt s# leader. Recitation of tliu Ruddlui’s proc«|>0. ftixoml 
council At VAijftlf. (/andra-ipipts. Third council At FaCjiA. 
Composition of tout hero Tri-pi taka or t line collections. 

Rules of discipline, precepts, jdiihitkiphirid precepts. 

Common taric*. Roddhd-gbustia. Aioka’a inscriptions, lib 
odicta and proclamation*. Fourth council At .UUndliAr.i. Kn- 
nislikt. The northern canon. Hie nine Xc| 4 dnMi cauouicul 
scriptures. Thu Tibetan canonical scripture* (Kanjur) . . 53- 

LECTURE IV. 

Tiie Baxoha on Buddhist Order oh Moxks. 

Nature of thr Buddhist brotherhood. Not a priesthood, not 11 
hierarchy. Nuznes given to the monks. Method of iiduihtiiou t<» 
tin* monkhood. Admission of novice*. Three-ref ug© foiiuuht 
Admission of full monks. Pour rootmx* Four prohibitum*. 
Offence* and pcn&nces. Ei^ht practices. TT>e monk's daily life. 
HU thrt© garments Confetti ion. Definition of tlm Sunglin lt 
community of monks. Order of Nuns. Lay -brother* and lay- 
M*ters. Relation of the laity to the monkhood. Dutiiu* of tlx* 
laity. Later hiemrehicul Buddhism, diameter of monks of 
thr jimcut day in various (uuntiios . • . . 71 

LECTURE V. 

Thk l‘iu ix>s* n*}i Hal Doer him:* oh Buddhism. 

The philosophy of Baddhitni founded wi thit of Brahmanism. 
Three ways cf novation in BrfUimaniMil, The Buddha’s one way 
of adration. All life is misery. Indian pefrimistic philoaophy. 
Twelve-linked chain of causation. Celebrated Buddhist formal*. 
The Buddha's attitude towards die Sinkhya and VcdAnta philo- 
sophy of the Brfthraana. The Buddha's negation of spirit and of a 




CONTESTS. 



XXI 



Supreme Bring. Bithoaiical theory of metemptyclio.i.. The ' 
llwddhi.t 8kandliM. The Buddhist tbwry of tmnwiigntfion. 
Only six forms of existewxi. The BwMu’s previoe* hirth.. 
Examples given of itdrir* of two cf hi. prerieu* births. I leMiiiy 
■>f man dependent on hie own nets. Re-ormtire fora of set". 
Aft-forte creating world.. No knowledge of the first net. Cycle, 
of the Dili veraa. Intenmmblc racccidon of existence* like rota- 
tion of a wheel. Buddhist K«l|o» or ngea. Thirty -one abide* 
of nx classes of bring, rising one above the other in auecemive 
tiera of lower worlds and three xr.tr. of hrartiu . . . 1,3-1 it 



LECTURE VI. 

Thu MoiiAurr ok Btduiiimi asd it* ciiiit aim— 
ARUATMIIl OB NtUVAXA. 

Inconsistency of n lifo of inorslity in Buddhism. I>i vision 
of tlic moral otic. First five nnd then ten clncf rules uf mural 
conduct. Pioitive injunctions. The ten fetters binling u mmi to 
existcow. Seven jewel* of the Law. Six (or ton) transcendent 
virtue*. Humph* cf moral prroepfa from the Dharnm-pad* olid 
other works. Moral merit easily acquired. Aim of Bnddl.ixt 
morality. External nnd internal morality. Inner condition of 
heart. Four pot In or itoge* lending to AihnUliip or moral per- 
fection. Three grade* <f ArluttiL Berks cf Buddha*. (iautama 
the fourth Buddha of the present age, and last of twenty-fire 
Buddha*. The future Buddha. Explanation of KirvftQ* and 
P*ri-nirv&oa a* the time uim of Buddhist morality. Buddhist 
nnd Christian morality contracted 113-146 

LECTURE VH. 

Ciiakor* ix Biiidhism a*d rr* mbai'I'Kaujicb fbom Inna. 

Tendency of nil religions movements lo deterioration and disin- 
tegration. Tlie corruptions of Buddhism are the mutt of its own 
luiidiineidal doctrine*. R.-ststemcnt of Buddha's only Utuhiim. 
Recoil to the o || suit ■■ extreme- Sects and divisions in Bud- 
dhism. The fiist f'*ir princi|nl «ctN followed by eighteen, 
tiiirty-two, uud ninrty-aix. Mahfi-yfma or On si Mctlxd (vehicle). 




XXII 



CONTENTS. 



Hlitt-Jftiu or Lillie Method. Tl* Chincee Buddhist traveller*. 
rv)ii*t Anil lliuuvii Th-fliig. Kvamii* for tin disappearance of 
Buddhism from Indio. Gradual amalgamation with surrounding 
ays trnis. Interaction between Buddhism, Vubhlirivihm, *ml 

Huvisni. Ultimata merging of Buddhism in BriUim*ntam and 
Hindoism *47-i7» 



LECTURE VIII. 



Risk of Thkotic and PoLYTiiriKTic Hunum^. 

Development of the Mahi-yina or Gnat Method. Gmdonl 
deilVrttlioD of saint*. sages, and great men. Tendency to group 
in tiiad-. Firat triAd of the Buddha, the Law, and the Order. 
Buddhist triad no trinity. The Buddha ta be succeeded by Mai- 
tnya. Maitreyn'a lieeren longed for. Conatitutioo aud gradations 
of the Buddhiet brcdherhood. Headship and government of the 
Buddhist roonH*tcrin*. The fimt Arliat*. Pragma of the Maha- 
rliu> dcctriuc. The firat BodM-ttUva Maitreyu associated with 
numerous other Bodhbtattvos. Dcaficat ion of Maitreya and elec- 
tion of OauUtnas grant pupils to Bodhf-Kittvnship. Partial 
deification of great teachers. NagArjtma, (kuakli-imth. Hai- 
tian and Jce&plut ........ 172-194 



LECTURE IX. 

Timvric am> Poiytheistic Buddhism. 

Second Buddhist triad, Mniiju-arf, AYalukiMvarn or Ptoclma- 
pfn.ii nod V;»jr;i-|wpL Itafcriptini of «uch. Theory o£ live human 
Buddhas, five Dliyfini-BuddlxiS 4 of meditation,' and five Dbyini- 
Ikxlhi Kittcs. Five triaiD farmed by grouping together one from 
each. Theory of Adi-Buddlui. Worth ip uf the Dhyfini- Buddha 
Amit&bha. Tieraof htuveoB connected with the four Dhyinas or 
rtaget of meditation. Account of thu Inter Buddhist theory- of 
lower world* and three groups of heaven*. Synopsis of the twenty- 
•it bttvexB and their inhabitants. Hiudu goda and demons 
adopted by Buddliism. Hindu and Buddhist mythology . 195-222 




CONTENTS. 



XX11I 



LECTURE X. 

Mystical Boddiiisn jx its conxesion with nit You a 
Philosophy. 



PAOf 



Growth of enteric and mystical Buddhism. Dkylni* Buddhas. 
Yc^ii pbiluwphy. Svfiml Dayananda-SatimatL Twofold Yoga 
Bodily torture* of Yogi* Fading. Complete bW[- 
lion in thought Prugn>*ive stages of meditation. Samlldhi. 

Six transcendent fiwnJtiei. Tb* BuddU no spiritualist Nature 
of Buddha's enlightenment Attainment of miraculous powers. 
Development of Buddba’a early doctrine. Eight requisite* of 
Yog*. 8ix->yl!abl«*J sentence Mystical syllable* Clamping 
of limb*. Suppression and imprisonment of brmth. Suspended 
animation. Self -concent rat ion. Eight Hi |M'r natural jh>wir* 

Three hudira of every Buddha. Kilter©*! ?<iuL aud gn** l»udif*. 
Buddhist Mahatma*.' Astral liodita. Mcdern spirit uuliain. 
Modern esoteric Buddhism and Asiatic occultism . . 2*3-153 



LECTURE XI. 

HlKJfAaCMlCAL Buddhism, especially as developed IX 
Tibet and Moxoolia. 

The Sarkglm. iVvelopnwnt of Hierarchical gradation* in 
Ceylon and in Bumm. Tibetan Buddhism. Northern Bud- 
dhism connected with Shamanism. Lain inn and the LSiuistic 
Hierarchy. Gradations of monkhood. Avat&r* lAm**. Vaga- 
bond LAraas. Female Hierarchy. Two Ll m istic aect* Exp'.a- 
natioD of AfatAra theory. llirtory of Tibet. Early hirtwy of 
Tibetan Buddhinm. Thumi Saiubhota's invention of the Tit* tan 
alphabet India* Buddhist* sent for to Tibet. Tibetan canon. 
Tibetan kiugs. Founding of monaato rice. Buddhism adopted in 
Mongolia. Hierarchical Buddhism in Mongolia. Invention of 
Mongolian alphabet. Birth of the Buddhist refomier Tw.ng 
Klmpa. The Rod and Yellow Cop schools. Mounter is of 
Galdan, Brqmng, 11J Sera. Clnmcter of Taoug KhupuV ivfor- 
niutioo. Utermblanco id the Roman Catholic ami LamisUc 
system* Death and caDonfouLm of Tnon? Khnjm. 1 »cvok.|»nH*t 
of the A vatic* theory. The two Grand LTimoa, Palm Lima and 




XXIV 



CONTENTS. 



PAG* 

Pandifn Lfim*. Election of Dalai lJUiu. Election of tlio Cinild 
Lima* ot Mongol ja. List of Dnlni Litmus. Iliwoveryof present 
Dalai Liuu. The Limn or Klinnpo of tialdun, of Kurau or 
Knrcn. of Knku kh<*uu. Htnisai in Larisk, Tangut, Nepal, 
Bhntfin, Sikkim. In China nml Japra. Division* in Ja[arif«e 
Buddhism. Buddhism in Bu&ian territory . . . 253-301 



LECTURE XII. 

Cehemumiai. asp KmiAUsno Bdhpiihk. 
Op|u»ition of early Buddhiun to sacerdotalism and crrcmnnial- 
iim. Reaction. Religious superstition ip Tibet and Mongolia. 
Account* by Koeppeu, Sclitagintwcit, Markham, Huo, Snrot 
Chandra 1 ) 1 * AdmUsion-cereimmy of a novice in Burma and 
Osyloa. Boy-pupils. Daily life in Burmese monasteries avoid- 
ing to Shwny Toe. Observances during Varaa. Pirit wremony. 
MaliA-Inna Pirit AdmiBsioo-ccromonitu in Tibet and Mongolia. 
Drete and equipment of n (Am is tic monk, ltoije. Prnyer-WL 
Uw of Tilie tan language in the Ritual. A. CVomn do Kilrus’ 
lif.' and labours Komi and character of tlie Lami.tic Ritual. 
Hue's description of a particular Ritual Holy water, oonse- 
crnw.l grain, ten-drinking. Ceremonies in Sikkim and Loduk. 
Cerenioiy at Surat Chandra Itta' pr.sentntion to the Dalai Lama. 
Ceremony at transUtiou of n chief Lftma’s -oul. Other ceremonies 
Upuaatlm n«i fast-day*. Circumarobiiiotion. Cuinpnri.au with 
Roman Catholic Ritual ..... 



lecture xiii. 

K«5tiv*t.s Don ortr Rites, a»p Foemblabiks <>• Piuykrk. 
New V car's Fe.tivnls in Buinin aid Til*t. Fretival. of 
Bnildlia's birth and death. Fcstml of lamp.. Local Fwtivala 
Cli.ae ci the spirit -kings. Religious masquerades and dance,. 
Religious dramas in Burma and Tibet. Weapons used ngninst 
ov.1 sprits. Dor*. Phnrbu. Tattooing iu Burma. Domestic 
ntra and usages. Birth-ccremocica in Ceylon ami Burma. 
Name-giving ceremonies. Hurcsco^e. Baptism in Tibet and 




CONTENTS. 



XXV 



Mongolia. AnauliU. Marriiigc-crremomce. Freedom of wonxn , " 1 ' 
in Buddhut couiilriw. Usage* in eichno#. Merit gainfj by 
M*ing Rninul-life. Umgcs at death. Cremation. Funml- 
ce remoo it* in Sikkim, Jafon, Ceylon, Burma, Tibet, and Me*. 
golU. Exposure of mpM. in Tibet and Mongolia. Proyrr- 
fonnuUriee. Honiara. Mafli-poilror or ‘jawel-loiai’ formulary. 
Prayer-wboolB, pnyiDg-cyliDiUM and method of uaing them. 
Formulanoe on rcefea, etc. Mon Donga. Praycr-flagn Myalic 
forniuUriea. Boeariea l>aniaru. Mutual of daily prayer* , 340-386 

LECTURE XIV. 

SaCRKD Pl.ACKS. 

The «cp<m! land of Buddhism. Kafdla-vaMu, the Buddhas 
hirth-plac*. The arnnr-founUiti. BnddWGnyi. Ancient 
Temple* Secml trwi. Restoration of Temple. Votive HtQjms. 
Mixture of Buddhism mid Hmdtibm. Hinucn TWiig* dettrip- 
tinn of Buddlta-OnyL Simlth mar Benin*. Homed &flpa. 
Sculpture illustrating four event* in the Buddha's career. 
MUa-griha. Scene of incidents in thr IhuIdhaV life. l>eva- 
lUtta's plot*. «Satta-pjiani cive. dr&iusti. Resident in Jri a- 
vanA monastery. SsmUl-wood image. Miracle*. Vaisftlr, pUoe 
of second comic it. Description by Hiouen Tlieang sod Ffc-tiieu. 
Kuua&mbL Great monolith. N&landa monastery. Hioucn 
Timing * h description. S*&kftj/*, place of Buddhi's descent from 
bearcri. Account of the triple ladder. Siiketa or AyodhytL 
Mimcutous tree. Knnyi-kubj*. ftiliditya. i’afali-putra. 
Asoka’s palace. Founding of hospitals. First St&po. Keaa- 
riya. Ruined mound. Stop* Kuai-nagar*, the place of tfc* 
Buddha's death and Pan-nirvana 387-4 *5 

LECTURE XV. 

Xl0HA»TEXlK8 AXI» TKMfl.CT. 

Five kindr. of dwellings pennimihle for monks. Institution «»f 
monastcrietL Cave-rnowtcric*. Monasteries iu Ccyb'ii, Burma, 
and British Sikkim. Monastery at Killing in Udi*l; at 
Kuiibum; nt Kuku khotua ; at Kuicu; i»t Lliib^u. Palace- 




XXVI 



CONTENTS, 



rwj»f 

iiMittaK^ery of Potaln. Residence of Dului L\m», mid Mr. 
Manning* Interview with him. Moik—forie* of lJ» hr*ng, 
lUiiuxivo. Moiu, Oar Ma K liiao. Three nioth«r-moiiavt»ric5 of 
the Yellow Sect, fhihUii, Sent. and Dapung. Tu*hi Lunpo iumI 
t I k? T**hi Lilia*. Mr. llogfe'* interview uith die Tulii 
Turror* interview tritli the Grand Liima of the Tcrptiling 
a k» M utely. Smut Chsmdra DiV ib'ftrription «»f (be Tu>lii J.unpo 
monastery. Monasteries <*f die Kol Sect, Hum ye iiikI &*ky*. 
Motkttteiy libraries. Tempi—. Cave- tempi.* \* Catty**. Hie 
Kloifl tViity*. The Karie L'aitya. Villugu temple*. Temple* 
in LVjIikj, Tcmjdtf ul Kehi ui. Tooth - temple at Kandy. 
Barmcve temple*. Rangoon jmgodfl. Temple* in Sikkim, 
Moigidia, *ikI Tibet. Great temple at Lldh** ; at Itamoclic; at 
Ta 4 ii Lunpo 426-464 

LECTURE XVI 
IttAOSrt A XI) I HOLS. 

Inlroduetiixi of idolatry into India. Ancient image of Ltafldho- 
Gradual growth of objective Buddhism. Development of image* 
worship. Self-produced images. Hitmen Thsnng’a account of the 
sandal- wood image. Futon, character, nod general clurnctcristic* 
of images. Outgrowth of Buddha * rkull. Nimbus. 8bst, height, 
and different attitude* of Itischllin ’« image*. * Meditative/ * Wit- 
««.' ‘ peflt-i uuopted/ 4 Argument*! ire' or ‘Teaching/ * IVcach- 
»g.' ‘ Benedictivo,' ‘Mendicant/ and ' Recumbent' Attitude*. 
Representation* <if Baddh*’* birth. linage of other Buddha* 
and BudJii-mtirM. Images of Amitiblt*, of MaiUvy*. of Murtju- 
•it, of Avnlokittivnra, of K wan -yin awl Vajm-foiii. Imago* of 
other Bodhi -salivas, gods and goddesse* .... 465-492 



LECTURE XVII. 



8acki:u Oiukits. 

Song-Yun's dcacription of objects of worship. Three cl— sen 
of Buddhist tacxfd object* 493. 

Relia*. Hindu ideas of impurity connected with death. 




CONTENTS. 



XXVII 



Hindfl aid Buddhist method, of honouring ancestor- compared. 
Worship of the Bnddha'a relics. The Buddha'* liair mid niik. 
Eight portions of hii relic*. Adventure- of one of llie Buddha's 
twth. Tocth-teuipls it Kandy. Colestial light emitted by 
relica Exhibition of relief. Form nod character of Buddhist 
relic-reocptaclen. £»iiyas, Stupas, Diigalus, and tbir develop, 
meet into elaborate structures. Votive Stupas . . .495-50* 

Worship of foot-printn. Probable origin of tlio worship of 
foot-prints. ADegcd foot-prints of Ctu-iat. Viahnupud nt GuyJL 
Jaina pilgrima at Mount FbMuith. Adam’a Peak. Foot-printa 
in various countries. Mr. AUlast-rs description of the foot- 
print in Siam. Mark* 00 the nolca of the Buddha's feet . 506-514 

81c red tree*. General prevalence of trei-worihip. Belief 
that spirits inhabit tries. OflfetingB hung on lt>«8 Tint, of 
the (even prini-ipnl ll-ihlho*. The A»vatUiu or I'ipptL i» ol all 
tteen tlie nunt revered. Other me red tree* The K*l|B-lm.s 
Wishing- tree. KaLir V»r tree 514-510 

Sacred syinl-Js. Tho Tri-rut na aymhuL The Cakra or 
Wheel aymlol. The lotua dower. Tlie Svtullka tymbol. The 
Throne symbol. The Umbrella. The £oMba or Cuoih shell . 5-°'5 J 3 

Sacred animals. Worthip of snimnls due to doctrine of 
metempaydiaui. Elephants. l>«r. Pigt. Full . . &> 4-1^6 

Miaotdlnueous objotts- Bella. Seven precious aubeUnccs. 
•Seven treasnrea belonging «•> every oniversil monarch . 5 j6 "S >s 



StreruvENTUY Remabkb ox tii» Coxxkxio* or Bonmtsia 
arm Jaixisn. 

Difference between '.he Buddhist and Jaina mrlhcds of 
obtaining liberation. Niganfhaa. Two Jeiua sects- IHg-nm- 
lmina and SvetfnnUiOS. Tlie three chief point* »r difliivuiv 
between them. Their mend book*. Chnracteii-tics of l-'b 
ieets *6 dUtiuguidml frail Buddliiam. Belief in cxi>tiniv id 
KOulv. Moral code. Three- jewek Five m««d prohibition*, 
rrnyer-forniuln. Temple* creeled for acquintnni of unuil . 539-536 




xxvni 



COSTS 



LECTURE XVI IF. 

Bl.’DllIilBM CONTRA PIED »mi CUMSTIASITY. 

nor 

True Buddhiun in no religion. Definition of tbe word ‘ivligion.’ 

Foar clmr*cIori»tics onstituto n religion. Gtiutnmu'* rUira to 
le culled ‘the Light of Adn’ examined. Tins Buddha 1 * and 
Cliri*t’* tint cull to their dbciplox. Tbe ClimtUn’* ivrennM 
for the bxl) contrasted with the BuddhbV* contempt for tl»* 
body. l>x«rinc of storing up Barit illustrated, and shown to ho 
0 )mmnn to Buddhism, Brahmanism. Hinduism, OunforLiminr, 
Kccanftrianism, mid Muhammadanism. Doctrine of Karma or 
Act-force. Boddhiit and Wtriatian doctrine of deliverance com- 
pared. Buddhist. and Christian moral precept* compelled. The 
many l* re fit* conferred upon A - in l>v Buddhism admitted. Reli- 
gious feeling* among Buddhists. Buddhist toleration of other 
religiocm. 

Historic life of the Christ contrasted with legendary biography 
of the Buddha. Ghriat Ood-eent. The Buddha wlf-ecut. 
Miracle* recorded in the Bible and in the Tri-pipika contrasted. 
Buddhist ood Christian telf-tsicrifice compared. Character and 
►tyle of the Buddhist Tri-pijaka cont runted with tbn*<» of tJie 
Christian Bible. Various Buddhist and Christian doctrines 
eoutratUd. Which doctrines are to he preferred by rational and 
thoughtful men ia the nineteenth century 1 53 7-561 

OBSERVE. 

Tho prevalent error in regard to the number of Buddhists at 
present exiting in the world is pointed out in the Postscript ut the 
end of the Preface <p. xiv). 




LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

WITH DESCRIPTIONS. 



i. Dram Image u f Gautama Hu.MIl. obtained by (he .Author 

Cmni Oylou FrOntityi™ 

H- u ««oi dll (fan MuCtlinila S-r|Kot p ^ In an at«liolu uf 
profuind ii-liulim, with »» UOf ijwrd, ov! H.o r.;. .,f H W >U| 
ciuuipi|* fmn (be uvwn ofliU Ul 



t. FigncUo. rvj'romiitirij tlie Ciikni nr ‘ Wheel ' Symlml wilh 
Tri-ratnn uymliula in the outer «ip In .1,1 Loin. «j u,l„| i h 

the mitre (aer |.|1 gai-gaa) . . . 0*1 'Hb-ya-j- 

Cu|.li.l fniiu It- ■ nRravnr id aWbi.il o>|^nrti.| citliun ul 

Awntvatt In. uloii ijs .Mr l,ejuw«% ‘Tr»- uni 
Worship' 

3 - Map illustrative of the Haeivil kind .*f Ikiddliimi T, }W- ji 
- t- Portrait of Mr. (inuri-finuknr UdnydSniVknr, C S, I. now 

Hvflnti Sri Ku : ii>lfuiMnlu-Sn«s<Vflti . . . T « /»r 34 

See the «|iUQMi« x f .iii. rrftlle Preface, 
g. Magical Dorjc or thunderbolt oaed by Northern BuddhUu . 343 
6. I’rayer- be 11 u«*l in m.dtip j.4 

j. Mil Rid vrrap'n cidh-.l Phut-Jin, for cl.- Ill ice nguiuit evil t|>irili 35a 
U-l I7 Northern ItuiklhMa. llrooglii ham 1 tMrjifcnj in t*S, 

8. Amulet Worn by a Tibetan w email at lllirjllil^ in 1884 . 35* 

Purchupl u Hofjllmg .ul gicvio to th. Author by Mr. Situ 
Chm.tr. Ili* 



9. Hautl Prayer- wild brought by th* Author from Darjiling . 3-5 
to. IXimuu, or mrn<l drum, uted by vagabond Iluddh&l uxmka 383 
1 1 Ancient Buddhist temple .t IlaiMlmGajil. on it ap|.ii><*l 

ill 1880 .;i(l 

Utivnel .Unit the militia uf the roil ivilor. ■« It. loili- -I 

A-ik»‘. Uli|t>. nl lln> wlnni ft.mt.ma aUaiio <1 Itinti oh 
krau u 11I.4..4HJ.I1 !■> Mr l-4lur.i1Ur_s.il.; Mr. II \V V.-t-u 

U. TllC mill.' U'lUphi ul Uuililhll-Cacil. ns IY»t.il<d ill l"4 ,;o.| 

Prwi » | 4 u t •,T.|.h V; Mi. 1 'c.t.r .»l.r,-l 1., Mr >• W Au-un. 




XXX 



1 .IST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 



MCE 

jj. Brume inoli'l *I>ip up «1 Moulmtin, rrprMenting; triple 
ladder by which Huddlm is supposed to luivo descended 
from harm (from original in South Kensington UoMum) «iS 

14. Remain* of u colotsal riot ue of Buddha . , To /mv 467 

PNbably in ■ argumentative ' ur • oncMi®* ault«le (n 11.4*1). It 
v *4 Land ty (iSDMnl Mr A. OronineHnm rlcon to tin nosih win 
,1 Hi. Bmldli^tlayl Uoiplo. The date (Somral 64 - *. D. 1 41 1 ii 
faavribtd on 1 he putnot. 

15. Tcmi-cottn image of Buddha iluij up at Boddlin-Gayo 47< 

lfnlf the «i» '< the original wwlptan. RuiliUn L in 
■llili.bi if lualiLitimi uilif Uic Ire, wlli n hale or anrtola ronoil 
U- lund. I'rjloble ilate. not «arli*r llm» ijlh cuatury. 

1 ft. Sculpture found hr General Sir A. Cunningham at SArnfltli, 

near Bennres Tojar.r 477 

llliwlruim of the four |mei|«l ev.nU In Gautama Buddha'. life— 
namely, hia With, Iii* attainment of BoiMhohiod under ll* trw. 

Ilia Uadiiag at lWnar;.. and hii patting away in MOifielu Nirvana 
into p. 487). Pal. abiul ICO a. D. 

17. Sculpture of Buddha in ‘ Witnoa-nttitudc ‘ on attaining 

Buddlubood. under the tree (an umbrella ia above) . 478 
Found at BuiliIlH-C»yl UhU ital lie 9th cvntury. The original 
la KiuarkalOe for it* arailinc aid he ihu elic-iLr mark 

>a tin fun^cad. The dieuing i* fiooi a photograph bokoigiug 
to Sr A. ruuminjWu" 

18. Sculpture of Buddha in ‘Wituew-ntlitudo' on nttaining 

Butldluhootl nnilor the tre* t*o 

Frau a niche high up <■» (he wMtvn side 1/ ili« HuiMla-GajN 
Ii I mm <!»»• * Vi iliviniui * fnmiuta j». 1 04 tn*rril*«l <« mb 
Me. It i« half tbe *»* </ tU ..r^iiu.1 Kill jKaw. l*r%jtibfe 
«l*u* oltout the ntb century. 

19. St ul|>turic? fotitiil nt l.tiilJlui-Crtva represent in# the enrtiert 

Trim!. vi*. KuiMlim Dlintmi, ami Sui^bn . . - 4H5 

Tin limn it ix U fnui u jtl/X«»^n»i h Mulling In .Sir A, Cnmiin^hxm, 

Xl Jl. 4S4. 

JO. Votivo StOpo fouiul nt BinhUin-GiijS . . To face 505 

I’nlohlc tlfttv ult* it yii «>f lotk tvutury c/ unr trx 

a I. Clay model of a miall votive StujKi . • • « • $Qb 

SfeiecVJ ban ferer*) wkWi Ibf wlW k»w in tli* *:t of m»ulii 
by * D«ok uuutU a Bwaarfm' ia Uhtlili Sikkim in 18H4. Him 
uubIu! |irtb*I*ly «^Uin ih* 4 Yu Jhfcrialt’ or *111* other fanziuUoa 
A •> *1 irmAe. T\n eTgr.iving ii exactly ibf liw uf U»» uriginAl. 




RULES FOR PUON UNCLVTION. 



VOWELS. 

A, a, pronounced u> in rural, or the last a in America ; A, A, ■* in 
Ur, father; /. f, m in fill ; I, r. na in police ; //,».«* in ball ; 0. *. 
118 in nolo ; fti, ri, os in merrily ; fli, rl, an in marine ; K, e, a- in 
|.ny'; Ai, at, oi in oulc; 0, a, bh in go; Au, au, at in llaun 
(pronounced m in German). 

CONSOXANT8. 

K, i. pronounced na in Jill, ice* ; A'A, th, mi in iniAorn ; 6’, <j. na 
in pull, doy : Gh, <jh, a» in loykut ; iV, il, n* »g in tiny (ri.i) 

C, I, 88 in dole* (in tnusic).= English r h in eAurcA, lumV (lure'); 
('K f-K as in churvAAill (cWAill) ; J,j. s* in J <\ ; Jh.jh, in Wye 
Aog (hejAog); na in singe (am/). 

T, I. as in xnie (fru) ; TK, fK. n» in antkill (oiyAill) ; It. «/, a- in 
«frura (rfrnm); /M, dk, n» in rWAniml (rrr/Auircd) ; .V ; u in mmr 

T f /, ts> in w*tcr (a* prow>aar*d in Ireland); T\, tk nuf&ook 
(Imt mom denial); D, d. an in dice (more like th in l Au); DU, Ji. ns 
in aiMerc (more dental) ; »V, n, 88 in not, in. 

F, }>, at in pot, lip: Ph, jh, on in upAill ; ft, t, iu in Arair, rut; 
M. th, aa in oMor ; JI, m, ns in map. jam. 

y, u in yet ; ft, r, »v in red, year ; L, I, so in lie ; F, r, *» in 
me (but like ic after COWSOnanta, na in tirire). 

6 , t, a* in jure, mrian ; Sh. th, as in riun, loft; S’, a, 88 in «ir, 
hia*. U, h, aa in AiL 

In TibeUD the vowria, including eren r and o, hare generally the 
-liort aoard, hut acceJilunted vowels are comparatively long. I have 
marked aueli words m Una with a long mark to denote thin. Imt 
Koeppcn and Jaachke write Lana. Jaachko says that tlm Tibetan 
idplinhct was adapted from tho Luficha form of the Indian hlt.r. h> 
Tliumi (Tboiiuii) FumUmta (are p. ;;o) aU'Ut the y«*r 632. 




OBSERVE. 



It is Miimon to hoar Kiiglisli-speakere mispronounce 
die words Buddha mid Buddhism. But any one who 
studies tlic rules on tin* preceding page will boo that, 
tin? w in livMuu must not Is* prononnoed like tlm n 
in the English word ‘bail' hut like the »■ in I /ill. 

Indeed, fur the sake of the genend reader, it might 
In* better to write Booddlm and P.-oddhium, provided 
the or# U> pronounced us in the words "wood,’ ’good.' 

ADDENDA *-m» CORRIGENDA. 

Pago 21 , tiivo 15. One hundred is given as u round number. Tlso 
sctunl ilist Alien U about one hundred and twenty miles. 

Pago 138 , lino 16 It iim« not 1* inlcrrod Hint ilic episode of tbr 
ItfiitgivaiUt’itA ih i>r grmt Antiquity. Thii joint I liuve Dinde clear ih 
Itnllimuniiun uml Hinduism' (f*. 63)3*0 well n» in * I Julian Winlr m * 
My object ut |i. 138 h *ii»|*ly tr» Jiow flmt Nirrina i* «t» cx|>iy*moii 
ruin lit < hi Co Hublliiw... Uruhiiiuiii>m, xud Hinduism. 

Pago 101, line 2. Sjoio Vuii i* jirtipeily writ ten Snug Vim or 
Suinf-Ytuit 

Pngu 178 , line 16. I’rululdv nil ll*; iinxigvt of Dhainia an* meimt 
In U tVniiiK . jih <k'*ril«d in Ilk* itirir nil tlic »n»iK and ut p. 48ft. 

Pago 290, line *. * Cli»vcn-lj» atled ' a iiin*|iriiit lur cIctvih 
luinltil : I oil t in* luvKint tif tin criiitiuu of Avulolitfivum at |». 487 at 
thin Volnniu ju*<ituM ' cIuu ii-IhuiU'I. 

Page 440 , line 10 Iroui Imtuai, fr«t Umksl 

It i* fraud that the loiig.nmrk <mr the letter -\ 1 s*ny lave been 
ouitUd ui out* or two »attt or may huve lnvhru uil in printing. 




BUDDHISM. 



LECTURE I. 

Introductory. Buddkium in relation to Brdkmanitm. 

Ik my recent work 1 on Brilunanisin I have traced 
the progress o|’ Imlinn religious thought through three 
successive stages — called l.y me Vedism. r.i-.iliniaiiisiu. 
and Ilimlnism— the last including the three Mil-livi- 

siona of SaivMio. Vuishnnvisui, and Saktisin. Further- 
more I have attempted to prove that these .systems 
arc not really uprated by sharp lines, but tliat each 
almost imperceptibly shades oil* into the other. 

I have striven also to show that n true Hindu of the 
orthodox school is aide quite conscientiously to accept 
all these developments of religious liolicf. He holds 
that they have their authoritative exponents in the 
successive bibles of the Hindu religion, namely, (i) the 
four Vedas — Rig-vedu, Yajur-veda. Sima-veda, Atharva- 
veda — and the Brahniarms; (2) the Upanishads ; (3) the 
Law-books— especially that of Manu ; (4) the Bhnkti- 
nSstras, including the Ihimayana, the Muh&dhfmitu, 
the lhmiuiis— especially the Bhaguvata-juirana— and 
the Bluiguvnd-gitfi : {5) the Taut ran. 

1 ' IsriliniiiiiiMii itiiii 1 1 1 mJai -tu TLiitl John Murms 

AlWwarto Stroct. 



C 




I NT RODU CTOIl Y. 



2 

The chief works under these five heads represent 
the principal periods of religious development through 
which the Hinda mind has (Mused. 

Thus, in the first place, the hymns of the Vedas and 
the ritualism of the BrShmanas represent physiolatiy 
or the worship of the personified forces of nature— a 
form of religion which ultimately became saturated 
with sacrificial ideas and with ceremonialism and 
asceticism. Secondly, the Uponishada represent the 
pantheistic Conceptions which terminated in philoso- 
phical Brahmanism. Thirdly, the I.aw-laoks represent 
caste- rules and domestic usages. Fourthly, the Hama- 
yana, MaliD-bharata, and Buninas represent the jtrinciple 
of personal devotion to the personal gods, Siva, Vishnu, 
and their manifestations; and fifthly, the Tantras re- 
present the perversion of the principle of love to 
polluting and degrading practices disguised under the 
name of religious rites. Of these five phases of the 
Hindu religion proladdy the first three only prevailed 
when Buddhism arose; but I shall try to make clear 
hereafter that Buddhism, as it developed, accommodated 
itself to the fourth mid even ultimately to the fifth 
phase, admitting the Hindu gods into its own creed, 
while Hinduism also received ideas from Buddhism. 

At any rate it U clear that the so-called orthodox Brah- 
man admits all five series of works as progressive expo- 
nents of the Hindu system — although he scarcely likes 
to confess openly to any adoption of the fifth. Hence 
his opinions are of necessity Protean and multiform. 

The root ideas of his creed nre of course Pantheistic, 
in the sense of being grounded on the identification of 




BUDDHISM IS RELATION TO BRAHMANISM. 



3 



the whole external world — which he believes to be a 
mere illusory appearance— with one eternal, impersonal, 
spiritual Essence; but his religion in capable of present- 
ing bo many pliaBcs, according to the stand-point from 
which it is viewed, that ita pantheism appears to be 
continually eliding iuto forms of monotheism and poly- 
theism. and eveo into the lowest types of animism and 
fetishism. 

Wo must not. moreover, forget— as I have pointed 
out in my recent work - that a large body of the 



HindQs are unorthodox in respect of their interpreta- 
tion of the leading doctrine of true Brahmanism. 

Such unorthodox persons may be described as sec- 
tarians or dissenters. That is to sny, they dissent from 
the orthodox pantheistic doctrine that all gods and men, 
all divine and human souls, and all material appear- 
ances are mere illusory manifestations of one imper- 
sonal spiritual Entity— called Atman or Furuaha or 
Brahman — and they believe in ouo supreme personal 
god— either Siva or Vishnu or Krishna or Rama— 
who is not liable (as orthodox Brahman* say he is) to 
lcec his personality by subjection to the universal law 
of dissolution and rc-ubsorption into the one eternal im- 
personal Essence, but exists in a heaven of his own, 
to the bliat of which his worshippers are admitted '. 

And it must be borne in mind that these sectarians 
are von’ far from resting their belief on the Villas, the 
Brfihmui.ua. and Upuuishads. 

Their creed is lured entirely on the Bluikli-^'istr.ts 

• Thu b,-Y l0 of Sivu i. K-iliio, of ViiJmu in Vuilaii.nK -f *!"•*"« 
it lioloka. 



h 2 




-I 



INTRODUCTORY. 



— tliut in, on the Rfitiiiiy.il m, Muliil-Uiaratn. ami Parana* 
(especially on the Bhagavatu-puninn) and the Bhngavnd- 
yitii, to the exclusion of t he other scriptures oH I induisri). 

Then again it must sihvuys bo home in mind tliut 
the terms 'orthodox' and 'unorthodox’ have really 
little or no appilication to the gicat majority of the 
inhabitants of India, who in truth arc wholly innocent 
iil' any theological opinions at nil, and are far too 
apathetic to trouble themselves about any form of 
religion other than that which has belonged for 
centime* to their families and to the localities in 
which they live, and far too ignorant and dull of 
intellect to bu capable of inquiring for themselves 
whether that religion is likely to be true or false. 

To classify the musses under any one definite dene 
munition, either as Pantheist* or Polytheists or Mono- 
t heists, or as simple idol-worshippers, or fetish-wor- 
shipper*, would be wholly misleading. 

Their faculties are so enfeebled by the debilitating 
effect of early marriages, and so deadened by the drudgery 
of daily toil and the dire necessity of keeping body and 
soul together, that they can scarcely Ik* said to lie 
capable of holding any definite theological creed at all. 

It wi iii hi he nearer the truth to an y that the religion 
of an onlin.ny Hindu consists in observing caste-cus- 
tom* local usages, ainl family observances. in holding 
what may Is* called the Folk-legends of his neighl>our- 
hood, in propitiating evil spirits and in worshipping 
the image and superscription of the Empress of India, 
impressed on the current coin of the country. 

As a rule such u man gives himself no uneasiness 




BUDDHISM IN RELATION TO BRAHMANISM. 



5 



whatever al»out his prospects of happiness or misery in 
the world to come. 

He is quite content to commit his interests in a 
future life to the care and custody of the Brahmans; 
while, if he thinks nlx>ut the nature of a Supreme 
Being at all, he assumes His benevolence and expects 
His good will as a matter of course. 

What he really troubles himself about is the neces- 
sity for securing tho present favour of the inhabitants 
of the unseen world, »up|ioscd to occupy the atmo- 
sphere everywhere around him— of tl*> good and evil 
demons and s]<irits of the soil- g.iur.dlv represented 
by rude and grotesque image*. and artfully identified 
by village priests and Brahmans with alleged forms 
of Vishqu or Siva. 

It follows that the mind of the ordinary Himlfi, 
though indifferent about nil definite dogmatic religion, 
is steeped in the kind of religiousness best expressed 
by the word <W«W«n'n. He liveB in pcr|«etual dread 
of invisible beings who ore thought to be exerting 
their mysterious influences above, below, around, in 
the immediate vicinity of bis own dwelling. The 
very winds which sweep across his homestead arc 
believed to swarm with spirits, who unless duly pro- 
pitiated will blight the produce of his fields, or bring 
down upon him injury, disease, and death. 

Then again, besides the orthodox and licsides llu< 
sectarian IlindG and besides tho great deimmwnr- 
shipping, idolatrous, and superstition-, majority, anollur 
class of theJndinn cornnmnity must sd— l><- takvn into 
account — the class of rationalists and froc-thinkerv. 




6 



INTRODUCTORY. 



Those have been common in India from the earliest 
times. 

First anno a claw of conscientious douLtere, who 
strove to solve the riddle of life by microscopic self- 
introspection and sincere searchings after truth, and 
these did their licat not to break with the Veda, Yedic 
revelation, and the authority of the Bruhmaus. 

Earnestly and reverently such men applied them- 
selvcs to the difficult task of trying to answer such 
questions as — What am I ? Whence have 1 come? 
Whither am I going ! How can 1 explain my con- 
sciousness of personal existence? Have 1 an imma- 
terial spirit distinct from, and independent of. my 
material frame ? Of what nature is tho world in which 
I find myself? Did an nil-powerful Being create it out 
of nothing? or did it evolve itself out of an eternal 
protoplasmic germ ? or did it ootnti together by the 
combination of eternal atoinB ? or is it a mere illu- 
sion ? If created by a Being of infinite wisdom and 
love, how can I account for the co-existence in it of 
good and evil, happiness mid misery? Has the Creator 
form, or is lie formless? Has lie qualities and affec- 
tions, or lias Ho none 

It was in the effort to solve such insoluble enigmas 
l.y their own unaided intuitions and in a manner not 
too subversive of traditional dogma, that the systems 
of philosophy founded on the I'pnnisluids originated. 

These have been described in rny book on Brahman- 
ism. They were gradually excogitated by independent 
thinkers, who claimed to be Brahmans or twice-born men, 
and nominally accepted the Veda with its Brahma 1 ^ 08 , 




BUDDHISM IX RELATION TO BRAHMANISM. 



7 



while they covertly attacked it, oral least abstained from 
denouncing it as absolutely untrue. Such men tacitly 
submitted to sacerdotal authority, though they really 
propounded u way of salvation based entirely on wlf- 
evolved knowledge, and quite independent of all Vedic 
sacrifices and sacrificing priests. The most noteworthy 
and orthodox of the systems propounded by them was 
the Vedanta 1 , which, as I have shown, was simply 
spiritual Pantheism, and aaserted that the one Spirit 
was the only real Being in the (’niveree. 

But the origin of the more unorthodox systems, which 
denied the authority of both the Vida mid the Brillt- 
mmiH, must also be traced to the influence <>f ilm U|«mi- 
shads. For it is undeniable that a spirit of atheistic 
infidelity grew up in India almost pari passu with 
dogmatic Brahmanism, and has always been prevalent 
there. In fact it would l>e easy U> show that periodical 
outbursts of unbelief and agnosticism have taken pliicc 
in India very much in the same way as in Europe; but 
the tendency to run into extremes has always been 
greater on Indian soil and beneath the glow and 
glamour of Eastern Bkics. On the one side, a far more 
unthinking respect than in any other country has been 
paid to the authority of priests, who havo declared their 
supernatural revelation to be the very breath of God, 
sacrificial rites to lie the sole instruments of salvation. 



1 Tlic Kuiiklvu »5’>tcro, ■« I have shown, waa closely comn<tnl with 
the Vedintu, though il reccgniiul the Kpimtc existence <*f muntloa 
itiiliv.il iuI i*0»u»htin or spirit* illHlciul of tlic one (cullcil Atiinu). 
Both huil much in common with BniMlibin, though the Utter iuh- 
ititutcd b'Onya “u void’ for Panuha ami Atnnii. 





s 



INTRODUCTORY . 



ami themselves the sole mediators between earth and 
heaven ; on the other, far greater latitude than in 
any other country has been conceded to infidels and 
atheists who have poured contempt on all sacerdotal 
dogmas, have denied all supernatural revelation, have 
made no secret of their disbelief in a personal God, 
and have maintained that even if a Supreme Being 
and a spiritual woild exist they are unknowable by 
man and beyond the cognisance of his faculties. 

We learn indeed from certain passages of the Veda 
(Rig-veda II. l 2. 5 ; VIII. 100. 3, 4) that even in the 
Vedic age some denied the existence of the god Indra. 

We know, too, that Yaska, the well-known Vedic 
commentator, who is believed to have lived before the 
grammarian Pflnini (probably in tho fourth century 
n. c), found himself obliged to refute tho sceptical 
arguments of Kautsa mid others who pronounced the 
Veda a tissue of nonsense (Xirukta I. 15, 1 6). 

Again, Manu — whose law-book, according to Dr. 
Buhler, was comjKised between tho second century n. c. 
and the second a. d„ and, in my opinion, possibly earlier 
— luts the following remark directed against sceptics: — 

' The twice-born man who depending on rationalistic 
treatises (lictu-.silstm) contemns the two roots of law 
(sruti and Mnriti), is to he excommunicated (vahish- 
kitrynh) by the righteous na an atheist (uilstika) and 
despiser of the Veda' {.Matiu II. 1 1). 

Furthermore, the Maha-blmrata, a poem which con- 
tains many ancient legends quite os ancient as those of 
early Buddhism, relates (Santi-parvan 1410, etc.) tho 
story of the infidel Oirvaka, who in the disguise of a 




BUDDHISM IX RELATION TO BRAHMANISM. 



9 



mendicant Brahman uttered sentiments dangerously 
heretical . 

This &rvfika was the supposed founder of a materi- 
alistic school of thought called Lokilyata. Rejecting 
all instruments of knowledge (pramiiria) except percep- 
tion by the senses (pratyaksha). he affirmed that the soul 
did not exist separately from the body, and that all the 
phenomena of the world were spontaneously produced. 

The following abbreviation of a passage in the Sarva- 
dar&ana-saiigraha 1 will give some idea of this school's 
infidel doctrines, the very name of which (Lokayata, 
‘ generally current in the world ') is an evidence of the 
popularity they enjoyed : 

No hi'nvrn e»wt*, no final lilxrntion, 

No t*oul, no other world, bo ritw of carte, 

No recompense for net*; if I life l» spout, 

In merriment*; lei a man borrow money 
And live ut eiae and font on melted butter. 

How can this Ixnly wlwu reduced to dust 
Reviait earth? mid if a gWt can p»ia 
To other world*, why doe* not "Iroug affection 
Kur tluMe be leave* behind attract him lack? 
dilations, funeral ritei, mid tacriffcca 
Are n mere men in of livelihood ilcviaed 
By oitordotnl cunning — nothing more. 

The three composer* of the triple Vela 
Were rtRueo. or evil epirit*. or bufloona. 

Tlie recitation of myiterioi* word* 

And jabber of the prierta ia timple nompn*f. 

Then again, the continued prevalence of scepticnl 
opinions may be shown by extracts from otlw-r portions 

1 Freely Iran dut id l.y i»c in Indiau Wisdom, p. 13.1, and litwiilly 
trun.l.tid by Piof H It. CbwelL 

* • Let u* cat and drink for to-morrow we die.’ 1 for. xr. 31. 




10 



INTRODUCTORY. 



of the later literature. For example, in the Rilmfiyana 
(II. 10S) the infidel Brflhmnn Jav&li gives utterance to 
similar sentiments thus: — 

•The books composed by theologians, in which men 
are enjoined to worship, give gifts, offer sacrifice, 



practise austerities, abandon the world, arc mere arti- 
fices to draw forth donations. Make up your mind that 
no one exists hereafter. Have regard only to what is 
visible and perceptible by the senses (pratyaksham). 
Cast everything beyond this behind your back.' 

Furthermore, in a parallel passage from the Vishnu- 
purilna, it is declared that the great Deceiver, practising 
illusion, beguiled other demon-like beings to embrace 
many sorts of heresy : some reviling the Vedas, others 
the gods, others the ceremonial of sacrifice, and othois 
the Brahmans'. These were called Nistikan. 

Such extracts prove that the worst forms of scepticism 
prevailed in lioth early and mediseval times. But nil 
phases and varieties of heretical thought wero not 
equally offensive, and it would certainly bo unfair and 
misleading to place Buddhism and .Jainism on the same 
level with the reckless Pyrrhonism of the Oarvakas 
who had no code of morality. 

And indeed il was for this very reason, that when 
Buddhism and Jainism begun to make their presence 



felt in the fifth century It they Ix-cnmc far more for- 
midable than any other pirns© of scepticism. 

Whether, however. Buddhism or Jainism ho entitled 
to chronological precedence is still nn open question. 

' 8 w Dr. Jofcn Muir's Article on Iniliau Materialist* Journal of 
Roy«l Altaic Society, K. S. xix, p. 301. 




BUDDHISM IS RELATION TO JAINISM. I I 

about which opinions may reasonably differ. Some hold 
that they were always quite distinct from each other, 
and were the products of inquiry originated by two 
independent thinkers, and many scholars now eonsidci 
that the weight of evidence is in favour of Juiniwn bcinp 
a little antecedent to Buddhism. Possibly the tw< 
systems resulted from the splitting up of one sect inti 
two divisions, just as the two Brahma-Samajes of Cal- 
cutta aro the product of the Adi-Simiuj. 

One point at least is certain, that notwithstanding 
much community of thought between Buddhism and 
Jainism, Buddhism ended in gaining for itself by far 
the more important position of the two. For although 
Jainism bus shown more tenacity of life in India, and 
has lingered on there till the present day, it nevet 
gained any hold on the masses of the population, whereas 
its rival, Buddhism, radiating from a central point in 
Hindustan, spread itself first over the whole of India 
and then over nearly all Eastern Asia, and has played 
— as even its most hostile critics must admit — an im- 
portant role in the history of the world. 

To Buddhism, therefore, we have now to direct our 
attention, and at the very threshold of our inquiries we 
are confronted with this difficulty, that its great popu- 
larity and its wide diffusion among many peoples have 
made it most difficult to answer the question : — What 
is Buddhism I If it were possible to reply to the inquiry 
in one word, one might perhaps say thut true Buddhism, 
theoretically stated, is Humanitarianism, meaning by 
that term something very like the gfApd of humanity 
preached by the Positivist, whose doctrine is the uleva- 




INTRODUCTORY. 



1 1 

tion of man through man — that is, through human 
intellect, human intuitions, human teaching, human 
experiences, and ‘accumulated human efforts — to the 
highest ideal of perfection ; and yet something very 
different. For the Buddhist ideal differs to to ctelo from 
the Posit ivUt's, and consists in the renunciation of all 
]M-rsomil existence, even to the extinction of humanity 
itself. The Buddhist s perfection is destruction (p. 133). 

But such a roply would have only reference to the 
truest and earliest form of Buddhism. It would cover 
a very minute portion of the vast area of a subject 
which, as it grew, Became multiform, multilateral, and 
almost infinite in its ramifications. 

Innumerable writers, indeed, during the past thirty 
years have been attracted by the great interest of the 
inquiry, and have vied with each other in their efforts 
10 give a satisfactory account of u system whose de- 
velopments liave varied in every country ; while 
lecturers, essayists, and the authors of magazine articles 
are constantly adding their contributions to the mass 
of Hooting ideas, and too often propagate crude and 
erroneous conceptions on a subject, the depths of which 
they have never thoroughly fathomed. 

It is to he hoped that, the annexation of Upper 
Burma, while giving an impulse to Pali and Buddhistic 
studies, may help to throw light on some oliscure points. 

Certainly Buddhism continues to be little understood 
by the great majority ol’ educuted persons. Nor can 
any misunderstanding on such a subject l>e matter of 
surprise, when writers of high character colour their 
descriptions of it from an examination of one part of 




MAXYSIDKDNESS OF BUDDHISM. 



*3 

the Bystem only, without clue regard to its other phases, 
and in this way either exalt it to a fur higher position 
than it deserves, or depreciate it unfairly. 

And Buddhism is a subject which must continue for 
a long time to present the student with a boundless 
field of investigation. No one can bring a proper capa- 
city of mind to such a study, much less write about it 
clearly, who has not studied the original documents both 
in Pali and in Sanskrit, after a long course of prepara- 
tion in the study ofVedism, Brahmanism, and HindQism. 
It is a system which resembles these other forms 
of Indian religious thought in the great variety of 
its aspects. Starting from n very simple proposition, 
which can only be described ns au exaggerated truism 
— tlio truism, I mean, that all life involves sorrow, 
and that nil sorrow results from indulging desires which 
ought to lie suppressed — it has branched out into a 
vast number of complicated and self-contradictory 
propositions and allegations. Its teaching has become 
both negative and positive, agnostic and gnostic. It 
passes from apparent atheism and materialism to theism, 
polytheism, and spiritualism. It is under one aspect 
mere pessimism ; under another pure philanthropy ; 
under another monastic communism ; under another 
high morality; under another a variety of materialistic 
philosophy ; under another simple demonology ; under 
another a mere farrago of superstitions, including 
necromancy, witchcraft, idolatry, and fetishism. In 
some form or other it may bo bold with almost 
any religion, and embraces something from almost 
every creed. Jt is founded on philosophical Brilli- 




'4 



INTRODUCTORY. 



maoism. Inis much in common with Rfuikhyu and 
Vedanta ideas, is closely connected with Yaidirutvism. 
and in some of its phases with lx>tli Suivism and 
kaktism, and yet is, properly speaking, opposed to 
every one of these systems. It has in its moral code 
much common ground with Christianity, and in its 
medieval and modem developments presents examples 
of forms, ceremonies, litanies, monastic communities, 
and hierarchical organizations, scarcely distinguishable 
from those of Human Catholicism; and yet a greater 
contrast than that presented by the essential doctrines 
of Buddhism and of Christianity^ can scarcely be 
imagined. Strangest of all, Buddhism — with no God 
higher than the perfect man— has no pretensions to 
be called a religion in the true bo rise of the word, ami 
is wholly destitute of the vivifying forces necessary to 
give vitality to the dry bones of its own morality ; and 
yet it once existed as a rc.il power over at least 
a third of the human race, mid even at the present 
moment, claims a vast number of lulherents in Asia, 
and not a few sympathisers in Europe and America, 

Evidently, then, any Orientalist who undertakes to 
give a clear and concise account of Buddhism in the 
toinpam of a few lectures, must find himself engaged 
in a Vcn venturesome and dillicull task. 

Happily wo are gaining acquaintance with the 
Southern or purest form of Buddhism through editions 
and translations of the texts of the Pali Canon by 
Fausboll, Childers, Rhys Davids, OMenbcrg, Morris, 
Trenckne-r, L Peer, etc. We owe much, too, to the 
works of Tumour, Hardy, Clough, Gogerly, D'Alwis, 




SOUTHERN BUDDHISM. 



'5 



Bumouf, Lassen, Spiegel, NVeber, Kooppen, Minayeff, 
Bigaudet, Max Muller, Kern, Ed. Muller, E. Kuhn, 
Pitched, and others. These enable us to form a lair 
estimate of what Buddhism was in its early days. 

Rut the owe is different when wu turn to the 
Northern Buddhist. Scriptures, written generally in 
tolerably oorrect Sanskrit (with Tibetan translations). 
These continue to be little studied, notwithstanding the 
materials placed at our command and the good work 
done, drat by the distinguished ‘ founder of the Btudy of 
Buddhism,' Brian Hodgson, mid by Hurnouf, Wassiljew, 
Cowell, Sennit, Kelli, Beal, Poueaux, and others. In 
fact, the moment \v>- pass from the Buddhism of India, 
Ceylon. Bunua, and Siam, to that ol' N pill. Kashmir, 
Tibet, Bhutan, Sikkim, China, Mongolia, Manchuria, 
Corea, and Japan, we seem to have entered a Iabviintl, 
the clue of which is continually slipping from our hands. 

Nor is it possible to classify the varying anil often 
conflicting systems in these latter countries, under the 
one guneral title of Northern Buddhism. 

For indeed the changes which religious systems under- 
go, oven in countries adjacent to each other, not unfre- 
queutly amount to an entire reversal of their whole 
character. We may illustrate these changes hy the 
variations of words derived from one and the same root 
in neighbouring countries. Take, for example, the Ger- 
man words wlig, ' blissed, ' und knalv, ‘a boy,’ which 
in England are represented hy ‘silly’ and * knave." 

A similar low appcui* to hold good in the i-.isc of 
religious ideas. Their whole character seems t<> change 
bv a change of latitude utld longitude. This is even 




I 6 



INTRODUCTORY. 



true of Christianity. Can it be maintained, for instance, 
that the Christianity of modern Greece and Rome lues 
much in common with curly Christianity, and would 
any casual observer believe that the inhabitants of St. 
Petersburg, Berlin, Edinhurgli, London, and Paris were 
followers of the same religion I 

It cannot therefore surprise us if Buddhism developed 
into apparently contradictory systems in different 
countries and under varying climatic conditions. In no 
two countries did it preserve the same features. Even 
in India, the land of its birth, it hud greatly changed 
during the first ten conturiea of its prevalence. So 
much so that hud it been possible for its founder to 
reappear upon earth in the fifth century- after Christ, he 
would have failed to recognize his own child, and would 
have found that his ou n teaching had not escaped the 
operation of a law which experience proves to be 
universal and inevitable. 

It is easy, therefore, to understand how difficult it 
will be to give any semblance of unity to my present 
sulked. It will le impossible for me to treat ns a 
consistent whole a system having a perpetually varying 
front and no settled form. I can only give u series 
of somewhat rough, though, I hope, trustworthy out- 
lines, as far as |«Msible in methodical succession. 

And in the carrying out of such a design, thu three 
objects tliut will at first naturally present themselves 
for delineation will lie three which constitute the well- 
known triad of early Buddhism — that is to say, the 
Buddha himself, II is Law and His Order of Monks. 

Hence my aim will be, iu'the first place, to give such 




DIVISIONS OF TIIK SUBJECT. 



'7 



a historical account of tlie Buddha and of his earliest 
teaching as may he gathered from his legendary bio- 
graphy, and from the most trustworthy parts of the 
Buddhist canonical scriptures. Secondly, I shall give a 
brief description of the origin and composition of those 
scriptures as containing the Buddha's • Law' (Dharmn) ; 
and thirdly, I shall endeavour to explain the early con- 
stitution of tho Buddhas Order of Monks (Safigba). 
After treating of these three preliminary topics, I shall 
next describe the Law itself ; that is, the philosophical 
doctrines of Buddhism, it# code of morality and theory 
of perfection, terminating in Nirvana. Lastly, I shall 
attempt to trace out tho confused outlines of tlmistic, 
mystical, and hierarchical Buddhism, ns developed in 
Northern countries, adding an account of sacred objects 
and plaoes, and contrasting the chief doctrines of Chris- 
tianity. In regard to the Buddhism of Tibet, I shall 
chiefly base my explanations on Kooppen's great work — 
a work never translated into English and now out of print 
— as well as on my own researches during my travels 
through tho parts of India bordering on that country. 

And hero I ought to state that my explanations 
and descriptions will, I fear, bo wholly deficient in 
picturesqueness. My simple aim will bo to convoy clear 
and correct information in nnembellished language; and 
in doing this, I shall often be compelled to expose my- 
self to the reproach contained in the expressions, farvifa- 
fyrtamin, ‘chewing the chewed.' and pisJtla-peshuiut »i, 
•grinding tho ground.’ I shall constantly ho obliged 
to tread on ground already well trodden. 

To begin, then, with the Buddha himself. 

c 




LECTURE TI. 

The Buddha a* a personal Teacher. 

It is much to he regretted that among all the sacred 
books that constitute the Canon of the Southern Bud- 
dhists (see p. 61) — the only true Canon of Buddhism — 
there is no trustworthy biography of its Founder. 

For Buddhiam is nothing without Buddha, just as 
Zoroastrianism is nothing without Zoroaster, Confu- 
cianism nothing without Confucius, Muhammadanism 
nothing without Muhammad, and I may add with all re- 
verence, Christianity nothing without Christ. 

Indeed, no religion or religious system which luis not 
emanated from some one heroic central personality, or 
in other words, which 1ms not hud u founder whose 
strongly marked personal diameter constituted the very 
life and soul of his leaching and the chief factor in its 
effectiveness, hue ever had any chance of achieving 
world-wide acceptance, or ever spread far beyond the 
|>ln«e of its origiu. 

Hence the barest outline of primitive Buddhism must 
be incomplete without some sketch of the life and 
character of Gautama Buddha himself. Yet it is diffi- 
cult to find any sure basis of fact on which we may con- 
struct a fairly credible biography. 

In all likelihood legendary histories of the Founder of 




the buddha's biography. 



>9 

Buddhism were current in Nepal and Tibet in the early 
centuries of onr era ; but unhappily his too enthusiastic 
and imaginative admirers have thought it right to 
testify their admiration by interweaving with the pro- 
bable facta of Gautama Buddha's life, fables so extrava- 
gant that tome modern critical scholars have despaired 
of attempting to silt truth from fiction, and liavo even 
gone to the extreme of doubting that Gautama Buddha 
ever lived at all. 

To believe nothing that lias been recorded about him. 
is hb unreasonable as to accept with unquestioning faith 
all the miraculous circumstances which arc made to 
encircle him as with a halo of divine glory-. 

Wo must bear in mind that when Gautama Buddha 
lived — about the fifth century n.c. — the art of writing 
was not common in India Wo may point out, too, 
that in all countries, European as Well as Asiatic — 
notably in Greece (witness, for example, tbo familiar 
instance of Socrates) — men have thought more of pre- 
serving the sayings of their teachers than of recording 
the facts of their lives. 

And we must not forget that in India— where the 
imaginative faculties have always been too active, and 
anything like real history is unknown— any plain 
matter-of-fact biography of the most heroic pereonago 
would have few charms for any one, and little chance of 
gaining acceptance anywhere. 

Hence it has happened that the ballads (gittlift) 
and legends current almut Gautama among Northern 



■ It ix difficult to the theory of thorn v.l« niuihtuin (lint 

writing had nut bum invented. 





20 TUB BTTDDnA AS A PERSONAL TEACHER. 

Buddhists, bristle with the wildest fancies and the most 
absurd exaggerations. 

Yet it is not impossible to detect a few scattered 
historical facts beneath stories, however childish, and 
legends, however extravagant. We shall not at hsist 
be far wrong, if, in attempting an outline of the 
Buddha’s life, we begin by asserting that intense indi- 
viduality, fervid earnestness, and severe simplicity of 
character, combined with singular beauty of counten- 
ance, calm dignity of tearing, and above nil, almost 
superhuman "persuasiveness of speech, were conspicuous 
in the great Teacher. 

The earliest authorities, however, never claim for 
him anything extraordinary or superhuman in regard 
to external form. It was only in later times that Bud 
dhist writers pandered to the superstitions of the people, 
by describing the Buddha as possessed of various 
miraculous characteristics of mind und l«*ly. Hu in 
said to have teen of immense stature — according to 
Borne, eighteen feet high — and to have had on Ids body 
thirty-two chief auspicious marks (mnha-vyiuljanu), re- 
gnrdcd as indications of a Supremo Lord and Universal 
Ruler, eighty secondary marlcs (ano-vyafijumi), besides 
one htmdrcd and eight synitels on the sole of each foot, 
and a halo extending lor six feet round his |*erson. 

All that can he said with any degree of probability 
about his personal appearance is, that he was endowed 
with certain qualities, which acted like a spell, or with 
a kind of irresistible magnetism, on his hearers. These 
must have formed, so to speak, the fouu dat i on-stone on 
which tlie superstructure of bis vast influence rested. 





fcArv.ti jam or sc 1‘i'ui'V, *>t> iroi or th» iii*rs\tin* %>i* hi.kuw run ioiXT*nvi mi* 






BIRTH AND DEATH OF THE BUDDHA. 21 

Unhappily, no authoritative Buddhist scripture gives 
any trustworthy clue to the exact year of the Buddha's 
birth. The traditions which refer back his death to a 
date corresponding to 543 B.C. are now rejected by 
modern European scholars. Nor can we as yet accept 
as infallible the results of the latest researches, which 
making use of various other data, such as the inscrip- 
tions on coins, rocks, and columns, place his death more 
than a century later. Wc shall not, however, be far 
wrong if we assert tliat he was bom about the year 
50OB.C. at Knpila-vastu (now Bhiiiln) — a town situated 
about half-way between Basil and Ajudliya (Ayodhyu) 
in the territory of Kcsala (the modern Oudh, see pp. 29, 
48), about sixty miles from its capital city Sravasti (a 
favourite residence of Gautama), ar d about one hundred 
miles north-west of Benares, and near tLe borders of 
the kingdom of Jlagudha (now Behil). 

His father, named Suddhodana, whs a land-owner of 
the tribe of the Sakyas (a name possibly connected with 
the Sanskrit root Sak, ‘ to be powerful ’), whose territory 
in the Gorakh-pur district extended from the lower 
Nep<alese mountains to the river Rapti in Oudh. It 
has been conjectured that the Sakyas may have been 
originally a non-Aryan tribe, connected perhaps with 
certain nomad immigrants from Tibet or Northern Asia, 
who may liavo immigrated into India at various periods; 
but even if this could be proved, it would have to l* 
admitted that the Sakyas had become Aryanized. It is 
said that the chief families claimed to be Rajputs, 
tracinj back their origiu to Ikshvflku, the first of Un- 
Solar race. 1 1 appears, too, tliat though belonging to the 




TIIE BUDDHA AS A 1’KIISONAL TEACHER. 



Knliatrijo caste, they were agriculturists, anti mainly 
engaged in the cultivation of rice. I( is also nwortcd 
that Sakya families were in the habit of taking the name 
of the lauuily of the Brahmans who were their N]>iritti:«l 
guides and performed religions oflievs for them, and that 
tho family offtiiddhoduna t«»>k the name Gautama, that 
is, dtscoiulunt of the sage GnLnma. It does not, how- 
ever, seem necessary to account tor the name in this 
niiiiini r. It was an auspicious name, which in nneient 
times might have been given to the child of any great 
l ind-invncr as a proof of orthodoxy, or with the view, 
perhaps, of pleasing the BhUnwuis and securing their 
prayers and good wishes on its behalf. 

Tlie father of tho Founder of Buddhism was simply 

a chief of the &akyii tribe— certainly not a king 

sense of tlie term— but rather a great Zumimlur or 
landlord, whose territory was not *1 large in area 
as Yorkshire. Ilis name ouddhodaua, ‘one possessed 
of pure rice,' probably indicated the occupation and 
ordinary food of the peasantry i nimbi ting the district 
belonging to him and subject to his authority. Those 
who have travelled much in India must often have 
met great Imnlowuers of the ouddhodaua type — men 
to whom the title Maha-rilja is given much as ' Lord’ 
is to onr aristocracy. For example, tlie Muha-nija of 
DuilJianga in proUibly a more important i«reon.igo 
than Gautama's father ever was, and his territory larger 
than that of Suddhodunn ever was. 

Tho name Gautama (in l’ali Bpelt Gotamu) was 
the personal name corresponding to that given to all 
children at the name-giving ceremony. It was not till 




NAMES OF THE BUDDHA. 



2? 

his suppose*! attainment of perfect wisdom that Gnu- 
tniiiu assumed the title of Buddha, or 'the enlightened 
odd.’ But from that time forward thin IxjcnilH.* his re- 
cognised title. Every other name besides (iaiiLtmn (<>r 
Gotama), and every other title except Buddha (or to- 
gether, Gautama Buddha), are simply epithets ; for 
example, Siikya-muni, ‘ sage of the tribe of the Sakyns;' 
Sakya-ciuha, 'lion of the Sikyas ; ' Sranmna (Sa muuo), 
‘the ascetic;’ Siddhiirtha, 'one who has fulfilled the 
object (of his coming);' Sugnta, 'whoso coming is 
auspicious;’ Tiitliugnta, ‘who comes and goes as his 
predecessors;' Bhaguvjiu (Blingnvii), ‘ tin blessed lord;' 
fSiistii (Sattlul), ' the Teacher;' Afetmijn-wirniin, ■Refuge 
of the refuge less ; ’ Adityarbandhu, * Kinsman of tin* 
Sun;' J inn,' conqueror Maha-vira,' great hero ;' Mnhu- 
punisha, ' groat man t'akmvarti, ' universal monarch.’ 
Devout Buddhists cull him * Lord ol the World,' ‘ the 
Lord,' * World-honoured One.' ‘ King of the Law,’ ‘the 
Jewel,’ etc. ; and prefer to use the titles rather than the 
personal name Gautama, which is thought too familiar. 

The names of previous Buddhas, supposed to have 
existed in previous ages, are given at p. 1 36. 

Little of the story of the miraculous birth of Buddha 
is worthy of repetition. Since, however, a white ele- 
phant is reckoned among tho sacred objects of Bud- 
dhism, as something rare and precious, it is worth while 
mentioning the falde, that when tho time came for the 
Bodhisuttva to leave the Tushitu heaven (p. 1 10) and bo 
born on earth as Gautama Buddha, lie descended into 
tho womb of his mother in the form of a white elephant, 
llo was bom under a Sal tree and the god Brulilnit 




24 Til'*- BUD1>HA AS A PERSONAL TEACIIRR. 

received him from his mother'- side. Ilis mother, Maya, 
died seven days aftenvards, mid the infant was com- 
mitted to her sinter (Mahii-prijujisiti >. a second wife of 
Snddhodana. 

It is not related of Gautama Unit, ns lie grow up, 
an}- efforts were made to imbue him with sacred 
learning; though, as a Kshatriyn, lie was privileged to 
receive instruction in certain portions of the Veda. 

Nor arc we told of him that as a Kslintrivu ho was 

O’ 

trained to the ]«\>femion of a soldier. It is more pro- 
bable, that his love of contemplation develo|>ed itself 
very early, and that from a desire to humour this not 
uncommon Oriental propensity, he was allowed to pass 
moot of his time in the open air. 

There is a well-known legend, which relates Imw 
Gautama's relations came in a body to his father and 
complained that the youth's deficiency in martial and 
athletic cxercisc-B would incapacitate him, on reaching 
manhood, from taking purt in warlike expeditions. This 
might he reckoned among the few trustworthy historical 
incidents, wore the story not marred bv the legendary 
addition, that on a day of trial being fixed, the youth, 
without any previous practice, and of coumo to the 
surprise "full present, proved his superiority in archery 
and in ' the twelve arts.’ 

One statement may certainly l>e accepted without 
much qualification. It is said that Gautama wan made 
to marry early, according to the universal custom 
throughout India in the present day. No son of any 
respectable person in modern times could remain un- 
married at the age of sixteen or seventeen, without, so 




BTORY OF TUE FOUR VISIONS. 



25 

to speak, tarnishing the family escutcheon, and exposing 
tlie youth himself to a serious social stigma, likely to 
cling to him in iifler-life. In ancient times murriage was 
equally universal, and there is no reason to suppose 
that among Kshatriyas it was delayed to a muoli later 
period of life. 

No doubt, therefore, the future Buddha had at "least 
one wife (whose name was Y used hard, though often 
called Kahula-mdtd, ' Rdhula's mother '), and probably 
at least one son, named Rithuhu It is Slid that this 
son was not bora till his lather was twenty-nine years 
of age, or not till the time when u sense of the vanity 
of all human aims, and a resolution to nlniidou all 
worldly ties, and a longing to enter upon a monastic life 
had begun to take possession of his father's mind. 

The story of the four visions, which led to his final 
renunciation of the world, is profusely overbid with 
fanciful hyperbole, hut, however slight the basis of 
fact on which it may reasonably bo held to rest, it is too 
picturesque and interesting to be pushed over without 
notice. I therefore here abridge the account given in Mr. 
Beal's translation of the Chinese version of the Abhi- 
nishknunana-sQtia, varying (for the sake of brevity) the 
phraseology, but retaining the expression * prince — 

One day the prince Gautama resolved to visit the 
gardens in the neighbourhood of his father's city, desir- 
ing to examine the beautiful trees and flowers. 

Then there appeared before his eves in one of ilia 
streets the form of a decrepit] old man, bis skin 
shrivelled, his head bald, his teeth gone, his body 
infirm and bent A stuff supported bis tottering limbs, 




26 TOE BUDDIIA AS A FKRSOXAI. TEACHER. 

as tie Mood right across the path of the prince's advanc- 
ing chariot. 

Seeing this aged person. SiddhiUtha inquired nf his cha- 
rioteer: — ‘What hiunan firm is this, so miserable and so 
distressing, the like of which I have never seen before ?’ 

The charioteer replied ' This is wliat is colled an 
ohl man.’ 

The prince again inquired : — ‘ And what is the exact 
meaning of this expression “old " 1 ’ 

The charioteer answered ' Ohl age implies the loss 
of bodily power, decay of the vital functions, and failure 
of mind and memory. This poor man before you is old 
and approaching his end.' 

Then asked the prince 1 1 Is this law universal? ’ 

•Yes,' he replied,' this is the common lot of ull living 
creatures. All that is born must die.' 

Soon afterwards another strange sight presented 
itself— a sick man, worn by disease and suffering, pulo 
and miserable, scarcely able to draw his breath, was 
seen tottering on the road. 

Then the prinen inquired of his charioteer : — 'Who is 
this unhappy being ?' 

The charioteer replied : — * This is a sick man, and 
such sickness is common to all.’ 

Soon afterwards there passed before them a corpse, 
borne on a bier. 

Then asked the prince: — ‘Who is this borne onwards 
on hia bed, covered with strangely-coloured garments, 
surrounded by people weeping and lamenting?' 

' ThiB,' replied the charioteer, ' is called a dead body ; 
he has ended his life; he lias no further beauty of 




STORY or TI1E FOUR VISIONS. 



?7 



form, ami no desires of any kind ; lie is one with tlio 
stones and the felled tree ; he is like a ruined wall, or 
fallen leaf ; no more shall he see his father or mother, 
brother or sister, or other relatives ; his body is dead, 
and your body also must come to this.’ 

Next day on his going out by a different gate there 
appeared advancing with measured steps a man with a 
shaven crown, and monk’s robe — his right shoulder hare, 
a religious staff in his right hand, and a mendicant’s 
alms-bowl in his left. 

‘Who is this,’ the prince inquired, ‘proceeding with 
slow and dignified steps, looking neither to tho riglrt- 
hand nor to the left, absorbed in thought, with shaven 
head and garments of reddish colour '. ’ 

‘This man.’ said tho charioteer, ‘devotes himself to 
charity, and restrains his appetites and his bodily 
desires. He hurts nobody, hut does good to all, and 
is full of sympathy for all.’ 

Then the prince asked the mna himself to give an 
account of his own condition. 

He answered : — * I am called a homeless ascetic ; I 
have forsaken tho world, relatives, and friends; I seek 
deliverance for myself and desire the salvation of all 
creatures, and 1 do harm to none.’ 

After hearing theso words, the prince went to bis 
father and said, ‘ l wish to become a wandering ascetic 
(pariviajika) and to neck Nirvana; all worldly things. 
0 king! are changeable and transitory.’ 

Such is an epitome of the legendary story of the 
•four visionary appearances,* so called because they aio 
supposed to have been divine visions or appearances. 




2S 



THE BUDDHA AS A PBRSONAl. TKACHEB. 



miraculously produced. The remainder nf the legen- 
dary life of Gautama Buddha is interesting and hero 
and there not without some historical value, and por- 
tions of it I now add in nil abridged form. 

Vciy shortly after the occurrences just, described, 
Gautama receives intelligence of the hirlh of his son 
TJiUiula. This i- the fimt momentous crisis of his life, 
and Ganttuna remains for a long timo lost in pro- 
found thought. He sees ill his child the strongest of 
all fetters, binding him to family and home. But his 
mind is made up. lie must fly at once, or he for ever 
held in bondage. Around him gather the Ixsiutiful 
women of his father’s household, striving by their 
blandishments to divert him from his purjx>se ; hut 
in vain. He seeks the chamber of his wife, and finds 
her asleep with her hand <m the head of his infant 
son. He lungs for a last embrace ; hut fill ing to 
arouse her suspicions hurries away. Outside, his 
favourite horse is waiting to aid his flight. He ac- 
complishes the fimt stage of what Buddhists csfll with 
pride the Midiabhinislikramana, ‘the great going forth 
from home;' hut not without overcoming other still 
more formidable trials. For Mara, the evil deity who 
tempts timi t«» indulge their passions (sec |«. 120), makes 
Iliukself visible, ami promises the prince all the glories of 
empire if be will return to tin' pleasures nf worldly life. 

Finding all bis allurements disrcgaidcd, Mara alters 
hia method of attack ; la! tills the air with mighty 
thundering*, and creates on the road before the youthful 
fugitive’s eyes apparitions of torrents, lofty mountains, 
and blazing conflagrations. But nothing alarms or 




=9 



LIFE AT RAJA-GRII1A. 

iletera him. ' I would rather,' lie exclaims, ‘ be torn 
to pieces limb by limb, or lie Lunit in a fiery furnace, 
or be ground to pieces by a fulling mountain than 
forego my fixed purpose for one single instant.' 

Arrived at a safe distance from his father's territory, 
he exchanges garments with a passing beggar, cuts off his 
own hair with a sword, and assumes the outward aspect 
and character of a wandering ascetic. The hair docs 
not fall to the ground but ia taken up to the Trayas- 
trinsas heaven (p. 120), and worshipped by tile gods. 

His first halting-place is Iluja-griha (now Raj-glr), 
the chief city of Mugatllm, which, with Kosula (Omlb, 
pp. ai, .|S). afterward* became the holy land of Bud- 
dhism. There ho attaches himself ns a disci | Jo to two 
Brulinions named A]ari» (in Sanskrit Aruda, with epithet 
KOlupa or Kttlama) and Uddalca (Udraka, also written 
Rudraka, and called RiUna-putta, Hahu-vagga 1 . 6. 3), 
who imbue him with their own philosophical tenets 
and theory of salvation. Sufficient evidence exists to 
warrant u belief in this jiart of the story. 

No place in India abounds in more interesting 
Buddhistic remains than Raja-grilia (about 40 miles 
south-east of Patm), proving that it was one of the most 
sacred places of Buddhism, consecrated by some of its 
most cherished associations. Its Pali name is Raja- 
gaha. It may be conjectured that tho connexion between 
the metaphysics of Buddhism and thdl-o of Brahmanism 
was due to Gautama's intercourse with the Brahmans 
of this district, and to the ideas he thus imbibed at tho 
earliest stage of bis career. 

But to resume our story. Gautama tails to find in 




:<o 



THE BUDDHA AS A PERSONAL TEACHER, 



Bnllimanicol philosophy that rest and peace for which 
his smil whs craving when he left his home. 

Still there was another way of emancipation and 
union with the* Universal Soul, taught by the Brahmans. 
This wna the way of Tnpas 1 . or Helf-inflicted bodily i>niii 
nail austerity. 

Ir'nun the earliest times a favourite doctrine of 
Brahmanism has heon, that self-inflicted bodily suffer- 
ing is before all things eflicacious for the nccumula- 
tion of religions merit, fur the acquirement of super- 
natural powers, and lor the spirit's release from the 
bondage of transmigration and its re-absorption into 
the One Universal Spirit. 

Among other forms of self-inflicted pain, religious 
devotees (Tapasvla) sometimes went through the process 
of sitting all day long unmoved during the hottest 
montliE on a prepared platform or plot of ground, 
surrounded by five fin-s, or by four blazing tires, with 
the burning sun above their heads as a tilth % liven 
gods (and notably Siva) art- described as mortifying 
themselves by bodily austerities (fa j-aa), no as not to 
be outdone by men; for according to the theory of 
Hinduism, the gods themselves might lie supplanted 
and oven ousted from their rank and position ns 

1 T.|««- i. n Smi4.pt wool, ilrrivnl from tLc rout top. 'to hum, 
lurnmit.' Il i* council'll with L 11 L U-pcu, Cris-k nliloli lust 
originally dcnutul 'f<. lmin,* not 'to Imry' .lout Indie.. Tapaa 
ought not to U trmi-l.it.1 by ‘ punuiu',' uulctu tliut word Li rmtiirfod 
lo tl* jiantii, * pain/ 

’ Bud. men are culli-d Pr.BAi-t.i|Jb. (Maun VI. a 3 ). A g«.l ivpn.- 
tomtatiou of thi- form of T.[<i, may U seen in tLo Museum of (lie 
Indiin Iwlitute, Oxford. 




SEXENNIAL FAST. 



3« 

divinities by tbe omnipotence acquirable by human 
devotees tlirougli a protracted endurance of severe bodily 
suffering. 

Hence we are not surprised to find it recorded of 
Gautama Buddha, that seeking iu vain for rest in the 
teaching of Bnihmanical philosophy, and eager to try 
the effect of a course of self-mortification, he wandered 
forth from Raja-griha to a wood in the district of Gaya, 
called Univilvit (or Uruvela). 

There, in company with live other ascetics, ho began 
bis celebrated sexennial fust. Sitting down with his 
legs folded under him on a raised sent in a place un- 
sheltered from sun, wind, ruin, dew. mid cold, be 
gradually reduced his daily allowance of food to a 
single grain of rice. Then holding his hreath, lie 
harassed and macerated his body, but all in vain. No 
peace of mind came, and no divine enlightenment lie 
became convinced of bis own folly iu resorting to 
bodily austerity as a means of attaining supreme en- 
lightenment, and delivering himself from the ovils and 
sufferings of life. 

Rousing himself, as if from a troubled dream, ho 
took food and nourishment in a natural way, thereby 
incurring the temporary disapproval of his five com- 
panions iu self-mortification. Then, when sufficiently 
refreshed, he moved away to another spot in the same 
district. There, under the shelter of a sacred fig-tree 
(Asvattha, Ficus relitjmn, known as the Pippulu or 
I'ipul), in a village, afterwards culled Buddha Gaya, 
he gave himself up to higher and higher forms of medi- 
tation (Jliiina- Dhyaliu). In this lie merely conformed 




THE BUDDHA AS A rKRSoNAI. TKACHKIt. 



32 

to tho Hindu Yoga, — a method "f attaining mystic 
union with the Deity, which although not then for- 
mulated into a system, was already in vogue among 
the Brfihinans. There can he little doubt that the 
DhSmpi, Dliyumt (see |>. -'09). and Sainadhi of the 
Yoga were resorted to, evon in Gautama's time, as a 
means for the attainment of perfect spiritual illumina- 
tion, ns well .‘is of final absorption in tho Deity. 

In Mann VI, 7-' it is said : — * Let him purge himself 
from all taints (donhan) by suppression of breath, from 
sin by restraints of thought (dharuiiabhih), from sensual 
attachments by control, ami from unspiritual qualities 
by meditation (dhyfirionn).' 

In the later work called Blmgavad-gita (see p. 95 of 
this volume) it is declared: — ‘holding his Iwxly, bead, 
and neck quite* immovable, sea led on a linn seat in a 
pure spot with Kusa grass around, tin* devotee (\ogl) 
should look only at thu tip of Ins mise. and should 
meditate on the Supreme Being' (VI. 11. 12). Further 
on he is directed to meditate so profoundly us to think 
about nothing whatever (VI. 25). 

The very Gayatri or ancient Vedic prayer (Rig-vcda 
III. 62. 10, see p. 78 of this volume) — which is to 
Hindus what the Lord’s Prayer is to Christians, and is 
still repeated by millions of our Indian fellow-subjects 
at their daily devotions — was originally an act of 
meditation, performed with the very object Gautama 
had in view — supreme enlightenment of mind : — ' Let 
ua meditate (Dhlmahi, root iUtyai~) on the excellent glory 
of the divine vivifying Sun, may ho enlighten our 
understandings.' Even the selection of a scat under 




TEMPTATION BV M AHA. 



33 



an A&vallha tree was in keeping witli Brihmanicol 
ideas (soc ' BrAhmanUm and Hinduism.' p. 335). 

The first result, however, of his engaging in abstract 
meditation, was that ho seemed to himself to lie as fur 
as ever from the emancipation which was the one aim 
of his great renunciation. Why not then return to the 
world? Why not indulge again in the pleasures of 
sense ? Why not go buck to homo, wife, and child ? 
Thoughts of this kind passed through his mind, while 
all his old affections and feelings seemed to revive with 
tenfold intensity. Then on one particular night, 
during this mcntul struggle, Mara, the Destroyer and 
personification of carnal desire, seized his opportunity. 
The spirit of evil bad bided bis time ; bad waited to 
assail the sage at the right moment, when protracted 
self-mortification had done its work — when with ex- 
hausted strength he had little power of resistance. 

It is certainly remarkable that a great struggle be- 
tween good and evil, riglit and wrong, truth and 
error, knowledge and ignorance, light and darkness, 
is recognized in all religious systems, however false. 
(See a notable allusion to this in Sunburn's Commentary 
to dhandogyn Upanislmd, p. 26. 1 L 2-8.) 

The legendary description of the Buddha's temptation, 
and of the assault made upon him by Mara (the deadly 
spirit of sensuous desire'), and by all his troop of 
attendants, is so interesting and curious, notwith- 
standing its extravagance, that I here abridge it : — 

Fiends and demons swarmed about him in the form 



1 Accenting to Dr. Okknborg, tike Mptyu of tJic Kuili.ijuuidmd. 

t> 





.*•1 



THE BUDDTIA AS A PER80XAI. TEACHER, 



of awful monsters, furies, vampires, hobgoblins. armed 
to the teeth with every implement of destruction. 
Their million faces were frightful to bclmld, their limbs 
encircled by myriads of wrpeulh, their heads envelojied 
in u blaze of fire. They surrounded the saint and 
assailed him in a thousand different ways. Missiles 
of all kinds were hurled against him ; poison and lire 
were showered over him — hut the |Miini>n changed into 
fl..wer~. the lire formed a lialo round Ids head. 

The I tallied evil one imw shifted his ground. He 
summoned his sixteen enchanting daughters, and mil 
thorn to display their charms in the presence of the 
youthful saint. But the resolute young ascetic was 
not to be lured by their wiles. Ho remained calm 
and impassive, and with a stem face rebuked thr 
maidens for their boldness, forcing them to retire dis- 
comfited and disgraced. 

Other forms of temptation followed, and the debili- 
tated ascetic's strength seemed to be giving way. But 
this was merely the crisis. After rising to higher and 
higher stages of abstract meditation at the end of a 
long night he shook off his foe. The victory was 
won, und the light of true knowledge broke upon his 
mind. A legend relates that in the first night-watch 
he gained a knowledge of all his previous existences; 
in the second — of all present slates of Wing ; in the 
third— of the chain of causes and effects (p. 102); and 
at the dawn of day ho knew all things. 

The dawn on which this remarkable struggle ter- 
initiated was the birthday of Buddhism. Gautama was 
at that time about thirty-five years of age. It was 




THE BODH1-THEE. 



35 

then. and not till then, that his Bodhi-sattvaship (nee 
p. 135) ended and he gained a right, to the title Buddha, 
‘ the Enlightened.' No wonder that the tree under 
which he sat became celebrated up ' the tree of 
knowledge and enlightenment.’ It i'b romnrkable, too, 
that juet as the night on which the Buddha attained 
perfect enlightenment is the most sacred night with 
Buddhists, so the Bodhi-trcc (in familiar language. 
Bo-tree) is their most sacred symbol — a symbol as dear 
to Buddhists as the Cross is to Christians. 

And what was this true knowledge, evolved out of 
a mind sublimated l»y intense meditation? 

This is, perhaps, the strangest point of all in this 
strange story. It was after all a mere partial one-sided 
truth— the outcome of a single line of thought, dwelt 
upon with morbid intensity, to the exclusion of every 
other line of thought which might have modified and 
balanced it. It was nn ultra-pessimistic view of the 
miseries of life, and a determination to ignore all its 
counterbalancing joys. It was the doctrine tluit this 
present life is only one link in a chain of countless 
transmigrations — that existence of all kinds involves 
suffering, and that such suffering can only be got rid 
of by self-restraint and the extinction of desires, espe- 
cially of the desire for continuity of personal existence. 

For let it he made clear at the outset, that whatever 
may he said of the Christian-like self-renunciation 
enjoined by the Buddhist code of morality, the only 
self it nims at renouncing is the self of personality, and 
the chief self-love it deprecates is the self-love which 
consists in craving for continuous individual life* 

D 2 




36 THE BUDDHA AS A PERSONAL TEACUEIt. 

To those who have never travelled or resided much 
in the East, indulgence in such a morbid form of |*w- 
sirnism, under glowing skies and amid bright surround- 
ings, may seem almost nn iiiijKixsibility, lint those who 
know India by personal experience are aware that its 
climate is not condiicivu to optimistic views of life, 
and that even in tin present day men of the Buddha 
ty|H*. w ho seek in various ways to impress their pessi- 
mistie theories of existence on their fellow-men, arc 
nut uncommon. 

Iu the course of my travels I frequently met ascetics 
who had given up family and friends, and were leading 
u life of inonwu seclusion, and pretended meditation, 
undergoing long courses of lodily mortification. Nay, 

I have oven seen men who, to prove their utter contempt 
for the pleasures of worldly existence, anil to render 
themselves fit for the extinction of all personality by ' 
absorption into the Universal Soul, have sat in one 
posture, or held up one arm for years, or ulluwed them- 
selves no bed Lut a bed of spikes, no shelter but the 
foliage of trees'. Gautama's course of protracted cogi- 
tation therefore had iu it nothing peculiar or original. 

Nor need we doubt that certain historical facts underlie 
the legendary narrative. Wo cannot admit with the 
learned Smart and Kern that the life of Gautama was 
based on a mere solar myth. To us it is more difficult 
not to believe than to believe that there lived in the 
fifth century b.c. the youthful son of a petty Rujo 
or land-owner in Oudh, distinguished from ordinal v 



1 In the Bimn wsy ibe Ci.tcK.-iuu monk, uf Fountain’. Abbey l.rol 
nodcr «rtsia Irccn while ibo Abbey «u builJiug, 




TI1E BUDDHA AND MUHAMMAD COMPARED. 

men bv many remarkable qualities of miml and Ixxly — 
notably by a thoughtful and contemplative disposition ; 
that he became impressed with a sense of the vanity of 
all earthly aims, and of the suffering caused by disease 
and death ; that he often said to himself, ‘ Life is but a 
troubled dream, an incubus, a nightmare,’ or, like the 
Jewish sage of old, ‘All the days of man are sorrow,' 

• Man wnlketh in a vain shadow and disquieteth himself 
in vain;’ and that like many other of the world’s philo- 
sophers, instead of acquiescing in the state of things 
around him, and striving to make the liest of them, or 
to improve thorn, ho took refuge from the troubles of 
life in abandoning all its tics, renouncing all its joys, 
and suppressing all its affections and desires. 

And again, it is more difficult not to believe than t-« 
believe that in such a man introspection and absti- 
nence, protracted for many years, induced a condition of 
mind favourable to ecstatic visions, which were easily 
mistaken for flashes of inner enlightenment. 

We know, indeed, that eleven centuries later another 
great thinker arose among the Semitic races in Western 
Asia, who went through the same kind of mental 
struggle, and that Muhammad, like Gautama, having 
by his long Cists and austerities brought himself into a 
highly .wrought condition of the nervous system, became 
a fanatical believer in the reality of his own delusions 
and in his own divine commission as a teacher. 

But the parallel between the Buddha and Muhammad 
cannot l>e carried on much further. And indeed, in 
point of fact, no two characters could be more different. 
For the Buddha never claimed to be the channel of 




jS Tin: lll'DIHI V AS A I'EIISON Al. TIAl II Hit. 



a supernatural revelation; never represented tlm know- 
ledge that burst on his mind as springing lV.nn any hut 
an internal source ; never taught that a divine force 
operating 1'ioin without compelled him to commiiuicatv 
that knowledge to mankind ; never dreamed of propa- 
gating that knowledge I" otlnis by compulsion, milch 
less bv tlm sword. On the contrary, he always main- 
tained that the only revelation he hud received was an 
ilhiininalioii from within— due entirely to his own 
iulnitioas, assisted by bis reasoning powers and by severe 
purgatorial discipline protracted through countless pre- 
vious births in every variety of bodily form. 

But how did this internal ►elf-cnlightcnmcnt'— tha 
gre-at distinguishing feature of Buddhism— first Hud 
expression It Ls said that the limt words uttered by 
the Buudlia at tlio momuiitoiis crisis when true know- 
ledge burst upon him. were to the following effect : 

* 'llirough countless births have I wandered, seeking 
but not discovering (umbbisan) the maker of this my 
mortal dwelling-house (gaha-kAruka), mid still again 
and again have birth and life and pain returned. But 
now at length art thou Jiso.vcrcd, tlmu builder of 
this house (of flesh). No longer aha It thou rear a 
house for me. Butters nud Wains are shattered and 
with destruction of Desire (Taylia) delivcr.uico from 
repented life is gained at last’ (Dlmmina-|mlu 153. 
154. Sumahgala 46). 

' Tlio lU«g 4V »d. fi ltii (V. ; 8) usfctlti ; — * Tl>e *««<• O'ogi) who is 
inlecnolljr happy, intrriullv ut |*wr. m,l ini, -malt, illumii^l. nt Inins 
extisnioo in Bruhtnu.’ This is pure Buddhism if wo BulstUuto 
Uitatioo of individual existence for UralmuL 




PROCEEDINGS AFTER ENLIGHTENMENT. 39 

Contrast with tlieso first utterances of Gautama 
Buddha the first words of Jesus Christ : — 

‘ Wist ye not that I must bo about My Father's 
business ?’ (St. Luke ii. 49.) 

The Buddha's first exclamations, as well as the account 
of his subsequent savings and doings, are the more 
worthy of credit as taken from the Southern Canon. 

The Maha-vaggu (I. 1) tells us that ufter attaining 
complete intelligence, the Buddha sat cross-legged on 
the ground under the Bodhi-trcc fur seven days, ab- 
sorbed in meditation and enjoying the bliss of enlighten- 
ment. At the end of that period, during the first three 
watches of the night, lie fixed his mind on the c-iusck 
of existence. Then having thought out the law of 
causation (p. ioj), he exclaimed: • When the laws of 
being become manifest to the earnest thinker, bis doubts 
vanish, and, like the Run, he dispels the hosts of Mara.’ 

Next ho meditated for another seven days under 
a banyan tree, called the tree of gout-herds (aja-piiln). 
It was there that* a haughty Brahman accosted him 
with the question, ' Who is a true Brahman ? ' and was 
told, ‘One free from evil and pride; self- restrained, 
learned, and pure.' 

Then he meditated under another treo for a third 
period of seven days. There the serpent (Nugn) 
Mu&ilinda (or Mu&linda) coiled his body round the 
Buddha, and formed a canopy to protect him from the 
raging of a storm— this being one of the trials he had 
to go through. When it wna over the Buddha ex- 
claimed, ‘Happy is the seclusion of the satisfied man 
(tushta) who has learned and seen the truth.' 




40 



THE BUDDHA AS A PERSON A I. TEACHF.lt. 



A four tli period of meditation was |«wd under the 
tree lUj&yatanu, making four times sewn days. May iml 
these symbolize the four stages of meditation (|»- 209)? 
Later legends, however, reckon seven times seven days. 

During tlio whole of the interval between the first 
acquisition of knowledge and the setting forth to 
proclaim it, the Buddha fasted, being too elated to seek 
food, and only once receiving it from two merchants, 
named Tupussa (Tnipusha) and Bhollika. These l>e- 
came his first lay-rovercre (p. 89) by repenting the 
double formula of reverence for the Buddha and for his 
doctrine (the Saiiglia not being then instituted, Mab 4 -v° 
I. 4. 5). A later legend relates that they received in 
return eight of his hairs which they preserved se relics. 

In counexion with the legend of a forty-nine days’ 
fast, I may mention that an ancient carving of Gautama 
was pointed out to mo at Buddhu-Guya, which represents 
him as holding a bowl of rice-milk divided into forty- 
nine portions, one for each day. 

With these legends wc may contrast the simple G'wjiel 
narrativo of Christs forty days’ fast in the wilderness. 

The Buddha’s first resolution to come forth from 
his seclusion and proclaim his gospel to mankind is of 
course u great epoch with all Buddhist*. 

And here it should be oleerved, that, strictly, accord- 
ing to Gautama's own teaching he ought to have ceased 
from all action on arriving ut perfect enlightenment. 
For had he not attained the great object of bis ambition 
— tho end of all bis struggles— tlio goal of all bis efforts 
— carried on through hundreds of existences 1 He liad, 
therefore, no more lives to lead, no more misery to 




FIRST TEACHING AT BENARES. 



uadergo. In short he had achieved the summura 
bonum of all true Buddhists— the extinction of the 
fires of passions and desires — and had only to enjoy the 
well-earned peace (nirvriti) of complete Nirvana. Yet 
the love of his fellow-men impelled him to action 
(pravritti). In fact it was characteristic of a supreme 
Buddha that he should belie, by his own activity and 
compassionate feelings, the utter apathy and indifferenoe 
to which his own doctrines logically led (p. 128). 

But he did not carry out his benevolent design with- 
out going through another course of temptation (which 
it is usual to compare with the temptation of Christ). 
Evil thoughts juxee in his mind, and these wore 
suggested, according to later legends, by Xliim (p. 33). 
thus: — ‘With great pains, blest-ed ono, hast thou ac- 
quired this doctrine (dliarma). Why proclaim it ? 
Beings lost in desires and lusts will not understand it. 
Remain in quietude. Enjoy Nirvana' (Muha-v° I. 5. 3). 

To counteract these malevolent suggestions, the god 
Brahnul Salulmpati (Pali Sah&mpati, p. 2 10) presented 
himself and exclaimed 'Arise, 0 spotless one, open 
the gate of Nirvaiia. Arise, look down on the world lost 
in suffering. Arise, wander forth, preach the doctrine.’ 

First the Buddha thought of his two teachers, Ajira 
and Uddaka (p. 29), but found they were dead. 
Next he thought of tho five ascetics whom he had 
offended by his abandonment of the method of gain- 
ing true knowledge through painful austerities. They 
were at that time prosecuting their bodily mortification* 
at Benares in the Deer-park called Isiputomt. It was 
only natural that the Buddha should think of wending 




42 THE BUDDHA AS A PERSONAL TEACHER. 

hi* way in the first instance to Ronnres, even if special 
considerations luul not drawn him there ; for that city 
wua the great centre of Knatern thought and life, the 
Indian Athens, where all peculiar doctrines were most 
likely to gain a hearing. 

On his wav thither, I paka, a member of the Ajivukn 
sect of naked ascetics, met him and inquired why his 
countenance) was so h right (parisuddliu) l lie replied, ' I 
am the all-suUliier, the all-wise, the stainless, tlie highest 
teacher, the conqueror (p. 135) ; 1 go to Benares to dis- 
sipate the world’s darkness* (Malifl-vagga 1. 6. 7). 

The five ascetics (Kaundinya ■ Kondaflfio, Asvujit - 
Aasaji.VtUhpa, MahiinSraa, and Bhudriku) were soon con- 
verted by his words, and by merely repeating the triple 
formula were admitted at once to bis Order of monks. 
They constituted, with Q»utuina. the first si.\ members 
of the Saiigho.or fraternity of men seeking release from 
the misery of existence by c-enohitio luoiiasticUm. 

And of what nature were Gnutnmu Buddha's limt 
didactic utterances ? HU first sonuon, delivered in the 
Heer-parlc at Benares, is held in as much reverence by 
Buddhists as the first words of Christ ure by Christians. 
It is called I)li:mmia-c.ikka-]i]Kivattan:i-suttu, or in 
Sanskrit Itharma-riikra-prnviirtami-sfiti'tt, 1 tlm discoursti 
which set in mutioii the wheel of llm law,’ or * of the 
universal dominance of the true belief 

The following is the substance of it, as given in the 
Muhi-vagga (1.6. 17). It is ini]K.rtant to note that the 
Buddha spoke in the vermicular of Magadha (now 
called Pali), and not to men generally, but to the first 
five would-be members of Ids Order of monks 




FIRST SERMON. 



43 

‘ There are two extremes (until). 0 monks (P.Likkhm), 
to he avoided by one who lias given up Ihe world u 
life devoted to sensual pleasures (kanui), which is degrad- 
ing, common, vulgar, ignoble, profitless; mid a life given 
to self-mortification (utma-klumatlm) — pain fill, ignoble, 
profitless. There is a middle path, avoiding both ex- 
tremes— the noble eightfold path discovered by the 
Buddha (TatbSgata)— w hich leads to insight, to w isdom, 
to quietude (upasama), to knowledge, to perfect en- 
lightenment (sambodhi), to final extinction of desire 
and suffering {Nirvana).' 

So lar there is nothing very c.\ [-licit in the discourse. 
Doubtless such prcceptsii* • virtue h a uu-aii’ and dial 
a medio tutissinuiH ibis' are Useful, th<>ngh tiltc liulh.-s 
but the difficulty is to pixiv'u that the Buddha’ .seiglillbld 
patli is really a middle course of the kind ilescrilitd ; 
for the most fanatical enthusiasts will always regard 
their own creed, however extravagant. us moderate. 

The Buddha, therefore, goes on to propound what lie 
culls the four noble truths (ariya-ao&am = uryu-mtyuni), 
which are the key to his whole doctrine. They may be 
stated thus : — 

i. All existence — that is, existence in any form, 
whether on earth or in heavenly spheres— neoessarily 
involves pain and suffering (dukkha). 2. All suffering 
is caused by lust (ruga) or craving or desire (tan ha - 
Irish n:i, ‘thirst') of three kinds— for sensual pleasure 
(kima), for wealth (vibhava), and for existence (bhav.-i), 
3. Cessation of suffering is simultaneous with extinction 
of lust, craving, and desire (p. 139). 4- Extinction of 
lust, craving, and desire, and cessation of suffering are 




41 



THE DDDDliA AS A PERSONAL TEACHER. 



accomplished Hv perseverance in the noble eightfold 
puth (nriyo atthaiigiko maggn). viz. right belief or views 
(sHiniml ditthi), riglit. resolve (xuitkiippo), right speech, 
right work (kammnnto), right livelihood (iljlvo), right 
exorcise or training (vfiyamo - vyiiyiimn), right mindful- 
ness (sati, p. 50), right mental concentration (suniidlii). 

And how is nil life lucre suffering (I. 6. 19)’ — 

' Jiitli i. riiffiriiijt. IKc'.ln Mifloriiig. Itluo-S i. notr.iinR. JVolh 
i- Miff. ril-.*. A — ci:itiol» virii », lull’ in Millcr- 

ii>J. N.|«inili(iu from olivets Wo love in »atToiiug. Not to obtain 
wbnf we draiiv in Buffering. (Singing {tl|wiluun) to the live clpiiH'lltR 
(p 109) or cxi-tc-nco is luflfiiug Complete conation of thirst (tniiliB) 
and 1I1MPM h citation of Buffering. This i- tho noble truth ol aulToiing.' 

This sennon (called in Ceylon the first Bana = Bhipa, 
‘ recitation,’ p. 70) was addressed t<. monks, and however 
unfavourably it must compare with that of Girist (St, 
Luke iv. 18) addressed not to monks but to sulfcring 
sinners— and however obvious may be the idea that pain 
must result from giving way to lust and tile desire f,.r 
life through countless existences — is of great interest 
because it embodies the fimt teaching of otic, who, if not 
worthy to be culled ' the Light nf Asia.' nnd certainly 
unworthy of coin|«irison with the ‘Light of the World,’ 
wns at least one 0 f the world’s most *ucce»iful teachers. 

Lear in mind that, ns the result of his earliest meditn- 
tion {pp. 39, 56. to?), the Buddha made ignorance 
precede Inst as the primary cause of life's misery. 

Of course the real aigniticance of the whole sermon 
depends on the interpretation of the wool ‘right 1 
(sammi = Kunynk) in describing the eightfold path, 
and the plain explanation is thut 'right belief’ means 
believing in the Buddha ond his doctrine; ‘right re- 




EFFECT OF FIRST TEACH I SO. 



45 



solva ' means abandoning one's wife and family as the 
best method of extinguishing the fires of the jMssions ; 
right speech is recitation of the Buddhas dnetrino j right 
work (Karmanta) is that of a monk ; right livelihood is 
living by alms as a monk docs ; right exercise is suppres- 
sion of* the individual self; right mindfulness (Suiriti) 
is keeping in mind the impurities and imperraauence of 
the body ; right mental concentration is tranoedike 
quietude. 

Mark, too, that in describing the misery of life, associa- 
tion with loved objects is not mi-utiuned as compensating 
for the pain of connexion with hateful objects. 

The Buddha’s parly disciples were not poor men ; for 
the sixth to bo admitted to the Snhghn wax a high-b.ru 
youth named Ynsa. Then this youth's father, a rich 
merchant, became the first lay-disciple by rope::* mg tlio 
triple formula (pp. 40, 78), and his mother and wife 
became the first lay -sisters. Next, four high-born friends 
of Yasa, and subsequently fifty more became monks. 
Thus, not long sifter the first sermon, Gautama had 
sixty enrolled monks ; ull from the upper classes. 

In sending forth these sixty monks to proclaim his 
own gospel of deliverance, he addressed them thus ; — 

•I am delivered from all fetters (p. 127), human and 
divine. You too, O monks, are freed from the same 
fetters. Go forth and wander everywhere, out of com- 
passion for the world and for the welfare of gods and 
men. Go forth, one by one, in different directions. 
Preach the doctrine (Dhurmom), salutary (kalyuim) ill its 
beginning, middle, and end, in its spirit (artlm) ami in 
its letter (vyafljaua). Proclaim a life of perfect restraint, 




46 TUB BUDDHA AS A PER-SONA l< TEACHER. 

chastity, nn<l celibacy (hrnlmuuinriyam). I "ill go also 
to preach this doctrine ' (Mahfi-vngga I. 1 1. i). 

When his monk-missionaries hiul departed, Gautama 
liimself followed, though not till Mfirn (|>. 41) had again 
templed him. Quitting Benares he journeyed hack to 
Uruvelil, near (lava. There ho first converted thirty 
rich young men and then one thousand orthodox Ihiih- 
nians, led by Ka>yapa and his two brothers, who main- 
tained a snored lire (' Brahmanism,’ p. 364). Tho fire- 
chamher was haunted by a fiery snake-demon ; so Buddha 
asked to occupy the room for a night, fought, the serpnt 
and confined him in his own alms-howl. Next he worked 
other miracles (said to have been 3500 in numlier), 
Buch as causing wat$n*4« recede, fire-wood to split, fire- 
vessels to appear at his word. Then KSsynpa and Ids 
brothers, convinced of his miraculous powers, were 
admitted with the other Brahmans to the Satigha. Tims 
Buddha gathered round him about a thousand monks. 

To them on a hill Gnyasisa (Bniluna-yoni), near 
Gaya, he preached his ‘ burning ' fire-sermon (Mahft-v* 
f. 21): ‘Everything, 0 monks, is burning (adittam- 
adiptiim). The eye is burning; visible things are 
burning. The sensation produced by contact with 
visible things is burning— burning with tho fire of lust 
(desire), enmity and delusion (nigaggina dosaggina 
mohnggina), with birth, ileeny (jnmyii), death, grief, 
lamentation, pin, dejection (ilomannsselii), and despair 
(upAy&sehi) The eur is burning; sounds are burning ; 
the nose is burning, odours are burning ; tho tongue is 
burning, tastes ore hurtling; the body is burning, 
objects of sense are burning. The mind is burning ; 




FIRE-SERMON. 



47 



thoughts are burning. Ali are burning with the fire of 
passions and lasts. Observing this, 0 monks, a wise 
and noble disciple becomes weary of (or disgusted with) 
the eye. weary of visible things, weary of the ear, 
weary of sounds, weary of odours, weary of tastes, 
weary of the body, weary of the mind. Becoming 
weary, lie frees himself from passions and lusts. When 
free, he realizes that his object is accomplished, that 
he has lived a life of restraint arid chastity (hrahmo- 
cariyam), that re-birth is ended.’ 

It is said that this fire-sermon — which is a key to 
the meaning of Nirvana — was suggested by the sight 
of a conflagration. It watt Gautama's custom to impress 
ideas on hi* hearers by pointing to visible objects. He 
compares all life to a flame ; and tin- gist of the di-course 
is the duty of extinguishing the fire of lusts, and with it 
the fire of nil existence, and the importune® of monk- 
hood and celibacy for the attainment of this end. 

Contrast in Christa Sermon on the Mount the words 
addressed to the multitude (not to monks), ‘ Blessed are 
the pure in heart, for they shall see God.’ 

The Buddha and his followers next proceeded to Raja- 
griha. Among them were two, afterwards called ‘chief 
disciples’ (Agra-srivokas), Sariputta and Moggallina (or 
Maudgalyiyana), who died before the Buddha, and six- 
teen leaders among the so-called eighty 'great disciples’ 
(Mahi-Srivakas) ; the chief of these being Kusvapa (or 
MahS-kOsyapa), Upfill, and Annnda (a cousin), besides 
Anuruddha (another cousin), and Kityaynim. Of course 
among the eighty are reckoned the five original Bounces 
converts. At a later time two chief female disciples 




48 TUB BUDDHA AS A PERSONAL TEACHER. 

(Agra-srSvikus) named KheniS and Uppala-vannA (Ut- 
pala-varna) were added (see p. 86). Each leading 
disciple was afterwards called Sthavira, 'an elder,' or 
Mahi-sthavira, ‘ great elder’ (Pali Them. Mah&thera; 
fern. Tlieri). Mark, too, tluit Bunli-aira, king of 
Magadhn, and Prasennjit (Pasenadi), king of Kosala, 
were Gautama's lay-disciples and constant patrons. 

It was not long l>ofore the Buddha’s followers wore 
more formally incorporated into a monastic Order 
(Saiiglui), an 3 rules of discipline drawn up (see pp. 6r, 
72, 73, S3). And doubtless the success of Buddhism was 
due to the carrying out of this idea of establishing a 
brotherhood offering a liavun of rest to all. 

About forty-live yearn elapsed between Gautama's 
attainment of Buddhuhood and bis death. During 
that period lie continued teaching and itinerating with 
his disciples ; only going ‘into retreat ’ during the rains. 
A list of 45 places of reridonco is given. Ho seems to 
have resided ollenest at SruvustI (p. 21) in the monas- 
tery Jetnvana given by Anatlia-pindiku ; but Die whole 
region between Sravasti and I‘aja-grihu (p. 29), for nearly 
300 miles, was the scene of bis itineration. Favourite 
resorts near Raja-griha were the ' Vulture -peak ’ and 
Bambii-grove ( Vehi-vana) ; but continual itineration was 
one chief means of propagating Buddhism. 

It is said that his death occurred at Kusi-nngnra 1 
(Kusinuru), a town about eighty miles cast of Kapila- 



1 Or Kuw-rjgjrs, identified by Ccn Sir A. Oumiiiigliam with 
Hum, 35 mile* cut of Gonkb-pore on an old channel of tbr CbuU 

Qaodik. 





DEATH AKD LAST tt'OBDP. 49 

vastu — the place of his birth— when ho wo* eighty 
yean* of age, and probably about the year 420 
The story is that Gautama died from eating tin) much 
pork (ordried hoar's flesh-). As this is somewhat dero- 
gatory to his dignity it is not likely to have been fabri- 
cated. A fabrication, too, would scarcely make him guilty 
of the inconsistency of a-iying 'Kill no living thing,’ and 
yet setting an example of eating flesh-meat. 

Theae were his words when ho felt his end near : — 

' 0 Aruinda, I am now grown old, and full of years, 
and my journey is drawing to its clone ; I have reached 
eighty yeare— my sum «»f duys uml just as a worn-out 
cart can only with much cure 1k- made t<> move sdong, 
so my body can only be kept going with difficulty, It 
is only when I become plunged in meditation that uiy 
body is at ease. 1 11 future be ye to y« lursolves your own 
light, your own refuge ; seek no other refuge. Hold 
fast to the truth as yo\ir lamp. Hold fust to the truth 
us your refuge; look not to any one but yourselves as u 
refuge ' (Maha-parinibh'ina-Butti II. 3a, 33). 

Afterwards he gave a Btunmury of every monk’s 
duties, thus: — ‘Which then, 0 monks, are the truths 
(-the seven jewels, p. 127) it behoves you to spread 
abroad, out of pity for the world, for the good of gods 
and men? They are : 1. the four earnest reflections 
(Srnriti, Sati-pa^th 5 na, on the impurities of the body.oti 
the impermanence of the sensations, of the thoughts, of 

' I give 4*0 H8 .1 round number. Rliy8 DaviiIh liar Rood nuvtsis 
for fixing 111** dutc of OautomnB <ktfth About B.O. 4 i < >Menl« itf 
about 4S0, Cunningham 478, K« rn 388. The ohl i* ,34 V 
• See Bouk of the grtut Dcmoic, truncated by Uhy* ]> 7*- 

K 




50 THE BUDDHA AS A PERSONAL TF.A0I1KR. 

the conditions of existence, p. 127'; 2. the four right- 
exertions (SammappndljiUin, viz. to prevent demerit 
from arising, get ri«l of it when arisen, produce merit, 
increase it) ; 3. the four pntlis to sujiernntunil power 
(Iddhi-pfida, viz. will, effort, thought, iutenso thought) : 
4. the five fortes (rnfiia-Uila, viz. Guth. energy, rceollee- 
tion, Belf-eoiiceiitmtioii, reason) ; 5. the proper use of the 
five organs of neine; 6. the seven ‘limbs' of knowledge 
(pRKlIiv-ju'ign, \iz. recollection, investigation, energy, joy, 
serenity, remcentrationof mind, equanimity); 7. the noble 
eightfold path' (p. 44). See Mahu-parinibbaiia 111 . 65. 

Then shortly before his decease, ho said, ‘ It may Ik?, 
Aranda, that in Borne of you the thought may arise : — 
The words of our Teacher are ended ; wo have lost our 
Master. But. it is not thus. The truths ami the rules 
of the Order, which I have taught and preached, lit 
these he your teacher, when I am gone' {VI. 1). 

‘ Behold now, 0 monks, I exhort you Everything 
that coincth into being pmsotli away ; work out- your 
own perfection with diligence ’ (III. 66). 

Not long alter his hist utterances the Buddha, who had 
lx- fore through intense meditation attained Nirvana or 
extinction of the fire of desires, passed through the four 
stages of meditation (p. 209) till tin? moment came for 
his I'ari-nirvann, whereby the fire of life also was ex- 
tinguished. A couch had been placed for him between 
two Sid trees (p. 23). with the head towards the north. 
In sculptures he is represented as lying on his right 
side at the moment of death, and images of him in this 
position are highly venerated. 

The chief men of Kuei-nagara burnt bis body with 




CHARACTER OF TEACHING. 



5» 

the coremonicH usual at the death of .1 (\ikrnvartin or 
Hniversnl Tinier, which the Buddha claimed to he. 

Then his ashes were distributed amen" eight prim os, 
who built Stupas over them (Buddha-vnosa 38). 

A legend states that when the lluddha died there 
was an earthquake. Then the gods Brahma and Indra 
appeared and the biter exclaimed: ‘Transient are all 
the elements of being; birth and decay are their nature; 
they are born and dissolved ; then only is happiness 
when they have ceased to be' (Mahfi-p* VI. 16). 

Contrast with Buddha's Iasi words the lust words of 
Christ: * Father, into Tliv hands 1 enmniond my Spirit,' 

A greater contrast than I lift t presented by tin- account 
of the Buddha's death and the CJosjvl narrative of the 
death of Christ can scarcely I* imagined. 

Of course ns a result of discourses during forty-five 
years, a large number were gathered into Gautama’s 
monastic Order. His first aim was the founding of 
this Order, and his chief sermons were to his monks ; 
but he accepted all men and ultimately multitudes 
attached themselves to him as lay-brethren (p. S7). 

In fact Gautama’s doctrine of a universal brother- 
hood, open to all, constituted the corner-stone of his 
popularity. He spoke to them in their own provincial 
dialect, which could not have differed much from tho 
Pali of the texts— and lie enforced his words by 
dialogues, parables, fables, reiterations, arid repetitions. 
Probably he was the first introducer of real preaching into 
India, and by bis practical method he seemed to bring 
down knowledge from the clouds to every man's door. 

The following parable is an example : ' As the 




52 THE BUDDHA AS A PERSONAL TEACHER. 

peasant sows the seed but cannot say : the grain shall 
swell to-day, to-morrow germinate, to also it is with 
the disciple ; he must obey the precepts, practise 
meditation, study the doctrine ; he cannot say to-day 
or to-morrow, 1 shall be delivered. Again: us when a 
herd of deer lives in a forest a man comes who oi*ens 
for them a false pith and the deer suffer hurt ; and 
another conics who opens a safe path and tlie deer 
thrive ; so when men live among pleasures the evil 
one oomes and opens the false eightfold path. Then 
comes the perfect one and opens thu safe eightfold path 
of right belief, etc.’ (p. 44, Oldenbcrg, 191, 192). 

Six rival heretical teachers arc alluded to. His chief 
opponent was his cousin Duvadatta, who set up a school 
of his own, and is said to have plotted against the 
Buddhas life. His efforts failed (Oulla-vngga VII), and 
he himself came to an untimely end. Possibly he may 
have belonged to the rival Juina sect (Nigantha) of 
naked ascetics, of which the groat leader was Vur- 
dhamana Mnhuvlra Nata-putta (= Jrtati-putru). 

Gautama's teaching gained thu day. It claimed uni- 
versality, and was aptly symbolized by a wheel rolling 
among all alike. Vet at first it bad no attractions for 
the poor and the child-like. 

By degrees, u fuller system, adapted in an ascending 
scale to laymen, noviexw, monks, nuns, and Arhats, was 
developed — a system which bud its abstruse doctrines 
suited to men of philosophical minds, as well as its plain 
practical side. This constituted the Buddhist Dharmu, 
which was ultimately collect-*! ia certain sacred books 
to be next described. 




LECTURE III. 



Tht Laic (Dharma) and Sacred Scri/Jurcs of 
Buddhism. 

Probably most educated persons arc aware that Bud- 
dhists have their own sacred scriptures, like Hindus, 
Pitrsis, Confuciunists, Muhammadans, Jews, and Chris- 
tians, It is not, however, so generally known that in 
one important |>articulnr these Buddhist scriptures, con- 
stitutin'' the Tri | itiika (|>. 61), diller wholly from other 
snered books. They lay no cluiiu tu wiperrutuml in- 
spiration, Whatever doctrine is found in them was 
believed to lie purely human — that is. was hell to he 
the product of man's own natural faculties working 
naturally. 

The Tri-pitnkn was never like the Veda of the Brah- 
mans, believed to be the very ‘breath of (}od ; the same 
care, therefore, was not taken to preserve every sound ; 
mid when at last it was written down tho result was 
a more scholastic production than the Veda. 

Moreover, it was Dot composed in the Sanskrit of 
the Veda and ftastraa — in the sacred language, the very 



1 Tli* Salafathft'lriibmaQa (p. 1064) and tho Brifcad-Snipjuka 
l *|»nii:vliiul (p. 455) Affirm tint tho Rig* Ynjur* Suma* nn<l Athnr\n- 
vctlu, tin* UpnnishotU, It foams, and PuritaaB were :ill tlie fiivath 
»f tho Supreme TWtug. And KiyimB, the will-known 
Ir.tUun Commentator on tlw? Hig-vnln, K|M*nkiag of the 8u|H*i n l-uitf 
in his Introduction, sa/j, Yi>}» uihivimtom Veilalt, * wIh 4 C bivutli 
the Vedafl nere/ 





54 THE LAW AND SACRED SCRIPTURES OK BUDDHISM. 

grammar and alphabet of which were supposed to come 
from heaven — but in the vernacular of the part of 
India in which Buddhism flourished. Indeed, it is a 
significant fact that while the grout sages of Sanskrit 
literature and philosophy, such as Vyiisa, Rumania, and 
Sankara, in all probability spoke and taught in Sanskrit ', 
the Founder of Buddhism preferred to communicate las 
precepts to the people in their own vernacular, afterwards 
called Pali. Nevertheless, he never composed a single 
book of bis own. In all probability lie never wrote 
down any of bis own precepts ; for if writing was then 
invented, it was little practised, through the abeonce of 
suitable materials. This is the more remarkable as 
Buddhism ultimately became an instrument for intro- 
ducing literary culture among uncivilized races. 

All that Gautama did was to preach his Dliurmu,‘Law,’ 
during forty-live years of itineration, and oral teaching. 
It was not till some time after his death that his say- 
ings were collected (p. 97), and still longer before they 
were written down. Itineration, recitation of the Luw. 
and preaching were the chief instruments for the pro- 
pagation of Buddhism. 

At present the Buddhist Canon is about as extensive 
us tlio Ih-fdiiininicul", and in both cases we arc left in 

' How <■!*.< can no iiccuamt for PAniui'i applying ll«c term Bliiahi 
to colloquial StiiisLiir 1 IWcoi.r E. It CUuull linlil. tint I'onini s 
alaudahl u tl«< llrihiuum lai.guugc us oppuwd to the SumliiU of the 
Volu and to Lot* ol- onliuaiy magi-. 

* Aoooiding to I'rof^ior Itlv. Davids the Tali text of tbo whole 
Tri-pitalu, c» true Cnouu of Bnddhiti Scrip lure, contain, about twice 
a. many word. un uur Bible; hot he calculate* that an EugILth train- 
Ution, if all rtpoUtioua were given, would be about four times ua 




FIRST COUNCIL. 



55 



doubt us to the dato when tho books were composed. 
How, then, did their composition lake place' 

All that cun l>e said is that at three successive 
epochs after the Buddha's death, three gatherings of 
his followers were held for the purpose of collecting his 
Buyings and settling the true Canon, and that a fourth 
assembly took place much later in the North. 

Tho first of these assemblages can scarcely with any 
fituess be called a Council. Nor can the fact of its 
meeting together in any formal manner be established 



on any trustworthy historical Insis. It is said that a 
number of monks (about five hundred, called Malii- 
atliaviruh, ‘the great elder.-,’ Tali Maba-tbcrii) assembled 
in a cave called Sattapaiini, near the then capital city of 
Mugiulhu — Hfiju-grilia. now Ruj-glr - -under the sanction 
of king Ajatn-satru, during the rainy season immediately 
succeeding the death of Gautama, to think over, put 
together, and arrange the siyings of their Master, but 
not, so far as we know, to write them down. 

There, in all likelihood, they mode the first step 
towards a methodical urrungement. But even then it 
is doubtful whether any systematic collections were 



composed The assembled monks choso Kuiyapa (or 
Maha-kasyapa, p. 47), the most esteemed of all the 
Buddha’s suiwiving disciples, as their leader, and chanted 
the Thera-vada (Stbavinx-v‘), ‘ words of the elders,’ or 
precepts of their Founder preserved in the memory of 
the older men ; the rules of discipline (Vinaya) being 

Ion g. 1 thould ►tatr here tluit in tliia chapter Kocppcu. Child* Ul»y» 
Davids anil Oldenberg ha%* *11 l**n referred to, U>ou-li L luve lu.t 
failed to examine the original Pali document* ®}WI. 




56 THE I-AW AND SACRED SCRIPTURES OF BUDDHISM. 

recited by Upflli '.and the ctliicnl precepts (SQtra), which 
constituted at first the principal Pharma 3 (par ctcrUence. 
in contradistinction to tho Vinaya), being imparted by 
Gautama’s favourite Amanda (|>. 47); while the philo- 
sophical doctrines — then undeveloped — were communi- 
cated by the president, Kiisynpa. If any arrangement 
was then made it was probably in two collections— the 
Vinaya and Dlmrma (say about 400 B.c.) 

In regard to the Pharma, two main lines were, 
in all likelihood, laid down as the basis of all early 
teaching. The first consisted of tho four sublime veri- 
ties, as they are called — that is, of tho four fundamental 
truths originally taught by the Founder of Buddhism, 
namely, the inevitable inherence of suffering in every 
form of life, the connexion of all suffering with indul- 
gence of desires, especially with craving for continuity 
of existence, tho possibility of the cessation of suffering 
by restraining lusts and desires, and tho eightfold 
course leading to that cessation (see p. 44). 

The second line of doctrine probably consisted of an 
outline of the twelve-linked chain of causality (niililna), 
which traced back nil suffering to a still deeper origin than 
mere lusts and desires— namely, to ignorance (p, 103). 

It is not, however, at all likely that any philosophical 

l>;li il raid I.. luoo Usui origiuully tliu family l>irl.-r of the 
OW«il*!g lU-hllj ivmnrlo that ll.ts did not make 
him * man of low poiitMi. tlioaj^lt ho wan pioluhiy thu lowest in runk 
of all tho early diaciptei of Gnutama. 

* Pnfcaor OWcuherg, in hi, jircfaoo to Ida edition of the Mal.i- 
vacgB, shows that in early times them were ouly two division, of (he 
Pitaka, one calUd Vinaya and the other Dhorma (Dhamma), which 
were often contrasted 




SECOND COl-XCIL 



57 

or metaphysical doctrines were clearly and methodically 
formulated at the earliest assembly which took plnco 
noon after Gautama's death. It is far more prolttble 
that flic first outcome of the gutliering together of the 
Buddha's disciples was simply the enforcing of some 
strict rules of discipline for the Order of monks, nud 
this may have taken place soon after 400 B.c. 

After a time, certain relaxations of these rules or 
unauthorized departures from them (ten in number, 
such as reception of money-gifts, eating a second meal 
in tho afternoon, drinking stimulating beverages, if pure 
as water in appearance 1 ), began to lie common. Tlie 
question 11s to whether liberty should be allowed in 
these points, especially in fhe'Jiyul, shook the very founda- 
tions of the community. I11 fact the whole society be- 
came split up into two contending parties, the strict and 
the lux, and a second Council became necessary for the 
restoration of order. All ten points were discussed at 
this Council, said to have consisted of 700 monks and 
held at Vaisali (Vesalf, now Besirh), 27 miles north of 
Patna, about 380 n.C.* The discussions were protracted 
for eight months, and nil the ten unlawful relaxations 
were finally prohibited. 

1 The ten uiu»lly enumerated are the three nhovo- named and •oven 
others, rir. power of admitting to the Order anJ oonfeauen in private 
hou*», the um of oomfortabie Kata, relaxation of monaMic rule* in re- 
mote country placra. power of obtaining a diipenaatiou from the Order 
after the infringement of a rule, drinking whey, pulling mil aside for 
future uw, power of citing tho example of other* o» anlid cxcu-e for 
relaxing dircipline. 

* According to Pro/emar Oldcnhcrg 1 * calculation Tho dato in 
douhtful. A round number (my 350 B.c.) might be given. 





58 THK LAW AND SACRED SCRIPTURES OF BUDDHISM. 

It has been observed that this second Council stands 
in u relation to Buddhism very similar to that which 
the Council of Nicosi bears to Christianity. 

The exact date, however, of either the first or second 
assemblies cannot be determined with precision. 

Not lun;' afterwards occurred the political revolution 
caused by tho well-known £audru-gupta (- Sundra- 
kottus)— sometimes called the first Asoka (or disparag- 
ingly, Kiilasoka). This man, who was a low-bom Sudra,* 
usurped the throne aud founded the Maurya dynasty, 
after killing king Nanda and taking possession of 
Pataliputra (or Palibothra, now Patnft, the then me- 
tropolis of Magadha or Bcluir), about 315 s. c. He 
extended tho kingdom of Magadha over all HindQstiin, 
and became so powerful that when Alexander’s successor, • 
Seleukoe Nikator (whoso reign commenced about 312 
b. ix), invaded India from his kingdom of Buetria, so 
effectual was the resistance offered by C'aiulru-gupta, 
that the Greek thought it politic to form un ulliuuce 
with the IlindQ king, and sent his own countiyman, 
Megnathenes, us an ambassador to reside at his court. 

To this circumstance we owe the earliest authentic 
account of Indian customs and usages, by an intelligent 
u I (Server who was not a native; and Megustliencs' 
narrative, preserved by Strabo, furnishes a basis on 
which u fair inference may be founded that Brah- 
manism and Buddhism existed side by side in India 
on amicable terms in tho fourth uud third centuries u.0. 
There is even ground for believing that king £audra- 
gupta himself favoured tho Buddhists, though outwardly 
ho never renounced hiB faith in Brahmauism. 




THIRD COUNCIL. 



59 

Camlra-gupta's reign is thought to have lusted until 
291 B. c., and that ot his son and successor, Vindus&m, 
Jrum 291 to (say) about 260 rec. Then came Ctuidrn- 
gupta'a graudson, the celebrated Asoka (sometimes 
culled DharrafiSoka), who, though of Sodru origin, was 
perhaps the greatest Hindu monarch of India. 

It was about this period that Gautama Buddha’s 
followers began to dcvelope his doctrines, and to make 
additions to them in such a way that the Abhi-dharma 
or ' further Dhurrna ’ hod to be added to the Sutra 
which constituted the original Dhurrna (p. 56). Even 
in Gautama's time there were great dissensions. 
Afterwurds difibreno:* of opinion increased, so that 
before long eighteen schools of schismatic thought 
(p. 1 58} were established. The resulting cuntioversies 
were very disturbing, and a third Council became 
necessary. It consisted of a thousand oldest members 
of the Older, and was held in the 16th or 17th year of 
Asoka’s reign at Patna (Pa(ali-putru). about 244-242 D.C. 

This third Council was, perhaps, the most important; 
for through its deliberations the decision was arrived 
at to propagate Buddhism by missions. Hence mis- 
sionaries, supported by king Anoka (see p. 66), were sent 
in all directions ; the first being Muhinda (Mahendra), 
the king's son, who carried the doctrine into Ceylon. 

Dr. Oldenberg has shown that in a part of the 
Tri-pi taka now extant, the first and second Councils 
are mentioned but not the third. The plain inference 
is that the portion of the Buddhist Canon in which 
the second Council is described cannot be older limn 
tluvt Council. Yet in all likelihood a givul port of 




Go TOE UW AND SACRBD SCRIPTURE? OK BDDDIIISM. 

tin- Vinaja (including the Pitimolckha Quel the Klmn- 
dlmkn.p. 62) was composed before the second Council — 
possibly as early ns about 400 U.C. — and the rest of 
the Canon during the succeeding century and a half 
before the third Council— that is, from 400 to 550 n.<\ 
It was coiuj- sod in die then vernacular language of 
BTngiidli.1 (Mftgndlii), where all three Councils wore held. 

It skins, however, prolx-ihle that in each district t<» 
which Ihiddhisin spread the doctrine of its founder 
was taught in the peculiar dialect understood by the 
inhabitants. It even appeurx likely that when Gau- 
tama himself lived in Kosalu (Oudh) he preached in 
the dialect of that province just as he taught, in 
Milgiullil when he resided in Magadha. The Culla- 
vagga (V. 33. t) makes him direct that his precept# 
should he learnt by every convert in the provincial 
dialect, which doubtless varied slightly everywhere. 
In time it liecnmo necessary to give fixity to the sacred 
texts, and the form they finally assumed may have 
represented the prevalent dialect of the time, and not 
necessarily the original Mftgadhf Prakrit This final 
form of the language was called Tali s (or Tanti). and no 

' JVufcMoc Oldnihrrg |4mc* the Icrnlily nf tin* PnH on the 
wtern coi -t of Southern India in the imrthi*rn port .if Knlinga 
(I'uri in iiml would lltcnrlun? rankc it tin uld form cf Ufijm. 

Tint country he think* Lad n»«*t fiv^ut'lit cofimniiiicutiottiuitli Ceyico, 

* Profcwor Childers that IMIi mcixdy meant the language 

of the lino or of (ext*, the word puli like tanti meaning ‘line.* 

Pali dirter* from the Prakrit of the Inscriptions, and from that of the 
dramas, and from that of the Juinuft (which w Btill Inter and tolled 
Anlha-migadhr), bv it* reUotion of some consonant* and infusion of 
8ouiknt. The Gtthl dialect of the northern book* is again different 





COMPOSITION OK TIIE SOUTHERN CANON. 6l 

doubt differa from the earlier Asoka inscription dialect, 
ami from Magadhl Prakrit as now known. 

Some think that the Puli resulted from an artificial 
infusion of Sanskrit, It is said that nearly two-fifths of 
the Pali vocabulary consists of unmodified Sanskrit, 

At any rate, it was in this language that the Buddhist 
law was carried (probably by Mahendra) into Ceylon, 
and the whole Canon is thought by some to have been 
handed down orally till it was written down thereabout 
B.c. Oral transmission, we know, was common in 
India, but if edicts were written by Asoka (p. 67), why 
should not the Law liavo been written down also ' 

As, however, Puli was not spoken in Ceylon, the Pali 
commentaries brought by Mahcnclrn were translated 
by him into Sinhalese, and the Pali originals being 
lost, were not retranslated into Tali till about the 
beginning of the fifl.li century’ of our era. 

Turning next to the final arrangement of the Pali 
Canon, we find that it resolved itself into three col- 
lections (called Tri-pi taka, Pali Tipi^aka, ’Three baskets/ 
the word pitaka, however, not occurring in the early 
texts), namely: 1. Vinaya, ‘discipline’ for the Order; 
2. Sutra (Pali Sutta), * precepts,' which at first consti- 
tuted the principal Dharaia, or moral Law (p. 56); 3. 
Abhi-dharma (Abhi-dhamma), • further Pharma,’ or addi- 
tional precepts relative to the law and philosophy. 

This division was not logical, ns each collection may 
treat of the subjects belonging to the others. 

Taking, then, in the first place, the Vinaya or dis- 
cipline portion of the Buddhist Libh\ we ought !<• 
observe that a portion of it (the Pitimukklui) is liut only 




6? THE I,A\V AND SACRED SCDirTURKS OF BVDPniSM. 



the oldest, but also tlio most important in its bearing 
on the whole theory of Buddhism. For, as wo shsill 
point out more fully hercaAer, tbo Buddlm's paramount 
aim was to convince others that to get rid of ignorance, 
gain knowledge. practise morality, and obtain deliver- 
ance, it was incunilwnt on a wise man to renounce 
married life and liecorne a moml>er of a monastic Order. 

Fun* Buddhism, in fact, was pure monachism -imply- 
ing celibacy, poverty, and mendicancy — and this could 
not be maintained without rules for discipline and out- 
ward conduct, which, os adopted by the Buddha, were 
simply a modification of the rules for the two religious 
orders of the Bruhma-£tri and Sannyasi, already existing 
in Brahmanism. 

With regal’d to the classification of the Vinaya rules,' 
they were divided into three sets : a. the Klinndhakn, 
in two collections called Mahii-vagga (MahS-vnrga), 
1 great section,’ and ( 5 ulla-vaggn. ’minor section’ (vagga 
- varga) ; b. the Viblinnga (including the two works 
called Pflrtjika and Pfufittiya), or a systematic arrange- 
ment and explanation of certain ancient ‘ relcasc-pre- 
Copts' fprntiinoksha-sutia, Pali Patimokkha) for setting 
live, through penances, any who had offended against 
the Older ; c. PnriviirJi-patlia, nr a comparatively modern 
summary of the above two divisions. 

Mark, however, that the Vinava abounds in details 
of the life and teaching of Gautama. 

The second Pi taka, called Suttn (Sutra), ' precepts,’ 
contains the ethical doctrines which at first constituted 
the whole Buddhist Law. It consists of five Nikavas, 
or collections, viz. a. the Diglia, or collection of 34 long 




COMPOSITION OP THE SOUTHERN CANON. 6? 

sutt as, among which is the Maiiu-parinibbunn-suttn {one 
of the oldest parts of the Cation after the Patimokkhn) : 
h. the Majjhiina, or collection of 152 suttaa of middling 
length ; c. the Samyutta, or collection of 55 groups of 
joined suttas, some of them very short ; d. the Angut- 
tara, or miscellaneous suttos in divisions, which go on 
increasing by one (anga) ; e. the Khuddnka, or minor 
collection, consisting of fifteen works. 

According to one school, this fifth Nikaya is more cor- 
rectly referred to the Ablii-dhamrna Pitaka. In character, 
however, it conforms more to the Suttn. Of its fifteen 
works, perl taps the moat imporlm it arc tlm f illmv ingsix: — 

The Khuddaka-puthft, 'short readings the Dlmmum- 
puda, ‘ precepts of the Law ' (or ' verses of the I, aw,’ or 
•footsteps of the Law’); the Jatnka (with their commen- 
taries). a series of stories relating to about 550' previous 
births of the Buddha (p, in), which have formed the 
basis of many stories in the Pafitfa-tantra, fables of /Esop, 
etc.; the Sutta-nipata, 'collection of discourses;’ the 
Thera-gath 5 { = Sthavira-g'), ‘verses or stanzas by elder 
monks Therl-guthu, ' verses by elder nuns.' 

The other nine are the Udflna, containing 82 short 
suttas and joyous utterances of the Buddha at crises 
of his life; the Itivuttaka, ‘thus it was said’( = ity 
ukta), 110 sayings of the Buddha; the Yimana-vatthu, 
on the mansions of the gods (which move about at will 
and sometimes descend on earth) ; the Peta-vatthu 
( = Preta-vastu, Petu standing for Preta and Pit rib 

1 550 is a round number. Tin* text of lb* Jatnka* ban Uwu 
edited by FouaWill and trunduUd by Rhyl Davids and olluri. S«* 
a specimen at p. 1 1 3 . 





6-1 THE LAW AND SACDKI> SCBIITlUSlW OP BUDDHISM. 

ou departed spirits ; tin* NiddcHi, u commentary on 
the Sutttt-nipHta ; tlio Pati-«unbhidn, on the super- 
natural knowledge of Arhata; the Apada.na (Sanskrit 
Avadfina), ‘stories about the achievements' of Arliuts ; 
the Buddlia-viuisi, or history of the 24 preceding Bud- 
dhas (the Diglut mentions only six) and of Gautama : 
the <Viya-pitiikn, 'treasury of nets,' giving stories bused 
on the J.i takas, describing Gautama's noquisitien of thu 
ten transcendent virtues (p. 12S) in former births. 

The works included in this SutUi-pipikn fivqiicutly 
take the form of couveisations on doctrine and morality, 
between Gautama, or one of liis chief disciples, and some 
inquirer. As constituting the ethical Dliarma, they are 
the most interesting portion of the Canon. 

With regard to the third Pitafca, called Abhi-dhatnma 
(Abbhi-dhurma, ‘further dharma'), which is held ly 
modern scholars to be of later origin and supple- 
mentary to the Sutta (p. 62), it contains seven prose 
works '. Moreover, it was once thought to relate en- 
tirely to metaphysics and philosophy ; but this is now 
held to be an error, for all seven works treat of a great 
variety of subjects, including discipline and ethics. Meta- 
physical discussions occur, hut it is probable that origin- 
ally Buddha kept clear of metaphysics (see p. 98). 

Besides the numerous works we have thus described 
as constituting the Tri-pitaka or three collections of 



' Tf»o Mjrrn an* mlli'il: i. 1 'l.iinmii-sniii'nm, 4 <*inxRrnit:on of ooji- 
ditioni of existence,' olitol l»v l>r. K. Mailer; 2. Vibbaiigu. 1 explana- 
tion*;' 3- Katbi-vuttliu, ' Ji-o.i^kni8 on Ol>« thousand controverted 
point*;' *. I*oi5eu]»-|iiif.fi»Ui, ‘ c*|iUn»tuw of peraonalitj;' 5 . Dhito- 
kultu, 'occMiat of element*;' 6. Yaniuka, 'rail®;' 7. Papilla*, ‘causca.' 




COMMENTARIES. BUDDHAISHOMIA. 65 

works of the Southern Buddhists, there are the Pali 
commentaries culled Attha-katha (Artha-katliii. • telling 
of meanings 1 ’), which were translated into Sinhalese, 
according to tradition, by Mahendra himself. A fterw ards 
the original Pali text was lost and some of the com- 
mentaries were retranslated into Piili bv Buddha-ghoshu, 
' he who had the very voice of Budrtant are ft. end of the 
fourth and beginning of the fifth century 01 om era. 

The Inanu-vanja or ‘ history of the great families of 
Ceylon.’ a well-known work (written in Puli by a monk 
named Mahii-numa in the fifth century and translated 
by Tumour), gives an account of this writer 1 . It Bays 
that a Hrfdunan youth, l«om near Buddliu-tiuyu in 
Mugadha, had achioved great celebrity as a disputant 
in Bnilmmnieal philosophy. This youth was converted 
by a Buddhist sage in India, ar.d induced to enter tlic 
Buddhist monastic Order. He soon became renowned 
for his eloquence, and was on that account culled 
Buddha-ghosha. He wrote a commentary, called Atth.-i- 
feulinl, on the Dhammn-sangimi, a work belonging t*> 
the Abhi-dharnia. lie also wrote a most valuable Pali 
compendium of Buddhist doctrine called Visuddhi- 
nuigga. ‘ path of purity,' and a commentary on the 
Dhurma-padu containing many parables. He went to 
Ceylon about a.d. 430 for the purpose of retranslating 
the Sinlialcse commentaries into Puli. His literary 
reputation stands very high in that island, and ho was 
instrumental in spreading Buddhism throughout Burma. 

• A list of tlu'M* i* invoi in Cliikk-ra' Diftioiaij. 

* So.- JntToJuttiiMi to lUnUli»-“tii»lin , » Parable*, bv IWoMi' M.<> 
Mailer; Tumour's Mutiii-vsois, pp. 

F 



66 THE LAW AND SACRED SCIillTIKES OK BtMlDIIISM. 



It may be noted that the two iu>|Hirtaut I’ali works, 
Muha-vansa and Pipa-vansa (iKipa-vanto), perhaps tin* 
oldest extant, histories of Ceylon, are also fairly 
autlieutic sources fur Buddhistic history before ( 'luist. 

Turn we now to the Muhuyanii ur Mi real Vehicle.’ 
This cannot be said to porac&H any truo Canon distinct 
from tin*- ' r hough certain Nepalese Sanskrit 

wi.rho, urinj.uMii iii inter times, arc held to be canonical 
by Northern Buddhists. 

To uiuloiBtand this part of the subject we must 
revert to the great king Atoka. It is usual to cull this 
second and more celebrated Atoka the Constantino of 
Buddhism. Being of Sudra origin he was the more 
inclined to favour the popular teaching of Gautama, 
and, as he was the first king who adopted Buddhism 
openly (about 257 u.c.) he doubtless did for Buddhism 
very much what Constantine did for Christianity. 

Tbo Buddhist system then spread over the whole 
kingdom of Atoka, and thuiicu over other portions of 
India, and even to some outlying countries. For grad- 
ually during this period most of the jietty princes of 
India, from IVsbUwur and Kashmir to the river Kistim, 
and Irani Siinit to Bengal mid Orissa, if not actually 
brought. under subjection to the king of Magudha, were 
compelled to acknowledge his |ial*<i mount authority. 

TJiis is proved hy Atoka's edicts, whieli are inscribed 
on rocks and stone pillars 1 (the earliest iLiting from 

1 Tliryaro iu two quite ilitoin-t hinds of writing Tuit ut Kupurda* 
K»rU— »onictiiiKs allied Nui llicni Asohu or Atiauo-Pali — h diiiriy 
fee iui lie, and inKvutlv to * itiumkuii oouins brinj; writtnu from 
right to left. That ut (iiinii, cotnmuuly culled .Southern Aiokn or 





AjOKA's inscriptions. 67 

about 251 B. c.), and urc found in frontier district-* 
separated from uacli oilier by enormoua distances. 

These inscriptions are of the greatest interest and 
value, as furnishing the first authentic records of Indian 
history. They are v ritten in a more ancient language 
than the Pali of Ceylon, and in at least three different 
dialects. Ten of the must important are found on six 
rxks and five pillars (Luts), though numerous other 
monuments are scattered over Northern India, from the 
Indian Ocean to the Pay of Bengal, from the Vindhya 
range 011 the south to the Kliaibur Pass on the north *. 



Iwlo-l'uli. i- rend I mill lilt to right, »i*l ii ml »> el.iirly I me *nl>le. 
If it cmiM I’nmi tho w»l ii prulmhly anui through 11 R.ihlavi cluiuinl, 
unit g»w rin to Ih-vuiiiguri. Conn) I'uuniuglmm umt other* tin* 
lieve thi- latter churuck-r In lav. origimtfd independently in luilu. 
Junius lYinsrp was the first to decipher the inscription dm racier. 

1 See l)r. R. N. Cuit'* article in the • Journal of tin* Xational Indian 
Association ’ for June, 1 8; 9, and oik of bin Selected Essay*, and 
General Sir A. Cunningham's great Work, ‘Tip Corpus Inacnpticnuin 
Indiuurum.' The General reckon* thirtom ruck inscription*, bcvcdIcoii 
cuve inwriptiotlS, nnd m inscribed pill.ii*. 

The eight most important ruck imeriptiona are those on (1) the R«k 
uf K-p.inU.gai hi (ul Sliihhaz-g-rh.i), in llriti-h Afghinfelin, forty mile* 
mut-uorth.oart of PcduXwar — this is in the ArianoPoli character ; 
(a) the Rock of Klifihi, shunted on the look of the river Jumni, just 
where it lnavre the Himalaya mountains, flftren mile* west of the bill- 
sloliuu of Muraourie ; (3) tb* Rock of Qirnar, fculf-a-miie to the east 
of tho city of Junsgurh, in KithUwilr; <*) the Kock of Dfaaoli, in 
Kill luck (properly Kn(ak), twenty miles north of Jagan-imth ; (5) the 
lt«ck «l Jsug.tla, in a large old foil eightsrn mil.. wMt-noitli-wist uf 
Giiiijiiin in Madia, j (6) Duir-Jt; (7) Rilpiiili.si the foot of tlie Kaiinni- 
langi ; (8) Huhiis*r-ui, at ill* noilh eu:t end of the Kaimur. The mmul 
lioit it hiKcriptiiMi is nm»l iin|>u1anl a. the only one which un-ulious 
Ruddlm hy inline. 

The live most important pillar* me: (1) the Pillar M Delhi ku-iwu 

P 2 




6S TICK LAW AS'U SACRFD 8CBI!*TriSl« OF 111 DM1 14M. 



In these proclamations anil edict* (ono of which was 
addressed to the third Buddhist Council), king A*>kn. 
who calls himself Priya-dursi (Puli I'iyn-dassi), i»u«« 
various orders, lie* prohibits the slaughter of animals 
for food or sacrifice, give* directions f„ r what mav he 
Called the fnxt hospitals, i. e. for treating men and even 
nninmls medically, appoints inisMomirk- for the jm»- 
pagutiuu of Buddhist doctrines, inculoiti-s |.-aec ami 
mercy . charity and toleration, morality ami self-denial, 
and what is still more renmrlcahlc, enjoins <|uim|ucnniul 
periods of national humiliation and confession of sins 
hy all classes, accompanied by a re-proclamation of the 
Buddha's precept*. A*oku, in fact, became so zealous a 
friend of Buddhism, that he is said to have maintained 
64,000 Buddhist monks in and uruund the country of 
Mugadha, which was on that account called the land 
of monasteries (Vihara - the modem Bihar or Bclmr). 

Xo doubt it was Afioku'a propagation of Buddhism 
hy missions in various countries— where it came in 
contact with ami partly adopted various already exist- 
ing indigenous faiths and sii|H!lntitions — that led to the 
ultimate Separation of the Buddhist system into the 
two gnat divisions of Southern uml Northern. 

Indeed, the formation ofa Xorthem School, ns distinct 
from a Southern, became inevitable after tin- conversion 
of Knntdikn, tha Imlo-Scytliiun king of Kashmir, who 



“ Fin* Sliflh* U,.j (,) another PilUrul 11(11, i f which miuW 
to CulcuUt. but lma nivlitly I..11 ivvtoo.I j (3) | he filUr at Atli- 
haU-l, a daft uitliout. .:i|iit»I,.if |<iliill,.l •Kti.l^otir, ihiity-llv,. 
f'ct in height; (*) U* 1'illur at Liorijo. i«r Boltinh. in llrngil ; (-> 
tLe Pillar m metier Liwrija, wv.utj-»Tcii tuilva norlh »in« of I’diiA. 




HH'MII CnUNCTL. KAMSIIK A. XOISTUKllN CANON. 69 

came from the North, ami became a zealous Buddhist. 
IF.- probuhly reigned in the second half of tho first 
century (a.D.), anil extended his dominions as fur ns 
Gujar.it. Sindh, mid even Mathura (sec p. 167. note 2}. 

It was during Kutiishka’s reign that a fourth Council' 
was held at JuJandham in Kashmir, under I’iirsva an<l 
Vasu-mitm. It consisted of 500 monks, who comjiosed 
tlireo Sanskrit works of the nature of commentaries 
(Upadosa, Vinaya-vibliasliii, Abhidliarma-vibhiudii) on 
the three Puli Pitnkns. Those were the earliest books 
of the MahiVyuna nr Northern School, wliieli afterwards 
formulated its more developed doctrines on tlio Indus, 
"'Idle the Pali Caiiort ortho South represented the true 
doctrine [ironiulgated on tin- Gauges, 

Kashmir was a centre of Sanskrit learning, and Kan* 
ishka, who was n ]>ntrau of it, became to Northern 
Buddhism wlmt. Asoka had been to Southern. Hence 
in process of time other Northern Buddhist books were 
written in Sanskrit, with occasional Gat lifts or stanzas 
in an irregular dialect, half Sanskrit, half Prakrit, 

It is usual to enumerate nine Nepalese canonical 
scriptures (Dharmas): — 1. Prnjfia paramiUi, ‘transcen- 
dent knowledge,' or an abstract of metaphysical and 
mystic philotnphy ; 2. Ganda-vyuha ; 3. Dana- him 111I3- 
vara (describing tho ten stages leading to Buddha- 
liood); 4. Samfidhi-rajn; 5. Lm'ikilvatilrn ; 6. Suddharma- 
puiidarika, ‘ T.otus of the True Law;’ 7. Tathiigatu- 
guhyaka (containing the secret Tantric doctrines) ; 
S. Lalita-vblura (giving a legendaiy life of Buddha); 

• liKtU'ii Tli.*An^ s>tiit«*A Out tin? tliivc ctmiiiii iitaui* - vru* riiHTaVtxl 
nu riittta uf coj»j»cr tuitl buried iu a Slu|u. Dtul, l. 153-15O. 




70 THE LAW AVD SACRED SCRIPTURES OF B0DDIII8M. 

9. Su varna-pni bhfca. The eighth is probably as old as 
the and century of our era, and next comes the sixth. 
Tibetan translations were made of all of them. Those 
extend to too volumes and are collectively called 
Ka'gyur or Knn’gyur (Kanjur). We owe onr knowledge 
of these to tlie indefatigable Hungarian traveller, Alex- 
ander Csorna do Korda. 

Copies of the Sanskrit works were brought to Eng- 
land by Mr. It. IT. Hodgson. The sixth has been trans- 
lated by Bumouf and recently by IF. Kern. Dr. Iia- 
jendra-LUa-mitra has edited the eighth. As to the non- 
canonical works M. Senart has edited part of the MahO- 
vastu, and Professor E. B. Cowell and Mr. R. A. Neil, 
the Divyavadana. They contain interesting old legends 
—some about the achievements of Asoka, some about 
Buddha himself, some perhaps from loot Vinaya hooks. 

As to the Pali written character, it is a question 
whether that current in the holy land of Buddhism, or 
in Ceylon, or in Siam (Kambodia), or in Burma— that 

is, Devunfiguri, Sinhalese, Kambodian, or Burmese— 
should be used. Many think Burmese most suited to 

it, and in Europe the Roman eburncter is preferred. 

It should be added that the recitation (BhSnn. 
Sanskrit root Bhai^, 'to speak in Sinhalese spelt Buna) 
of the Law is one of the principal duties of monks, the 
reciter being called Bhf.nuko. A peculiar mode ..f 
intoning is called Sura-bbaiina (sara = svara). The 
Buddha, they say, is not extinct, for he lives in the 
Dharma and in the Safigha, in the Law and in the 
monks who recite it. Hence the importance of recita- 
tion in the Buddhist system (p. 84). 




LECTURE IV. 



Thfi SitUgha or Bvddhisl Order of Monh. 

Turnups the first point made clear by the study 
of the Buddhist Scriptures is, that, the Buddha never 
seriously thought of founding a new system in direct 
opposition to Brahmanism and caste. Even his Order 
or fraternity of Monks, which attained a world-wide 
celebrity nnd spread through a great part of Asia, was 
a mcru imitation of an institution already established 
in India. He himself was a Hitnla of the Hindus, 
and he remained u Hindu to the end. His very name, 
Gautama, connected him with one of the most cele- 
brated HindQ sages, and was significant of his original 
connexion with orthodox Brahmanism. It is true he 
was a determined opponent of all Brahmnnical sacer- 
dotalism and ceremonialism, and of all theories about 
the supernatural character of the Vedas (see p. 53); but, 
being himself a HindO, he never required his adherents 
to make any -formal renunciation of Hinduism, as if 
they had been converted to an entirely new faith ; just 
ns, if I may say so with all reverence, the Founder 
of the Christian Church, being Himself a Jew, never 
required His followers to give up every Jewish usage. 

Nor had the Buddha any idea of courting popu- 
larity as n champion of social equality and ch iiunncer 
of nil distinctions of rank and ancient traditions — 




72 THK BUDDHIST OBDKIt OF MONKS. 

a kind of Tribune of the people, whose mission was to 
protect them from the tyranny of the upper classes. 

There was, no doubt, at one timo a prevalent opinion 
among scholars that Gautama aimed at becoming a grout 
social reformer. It was generally supposed that he 
began by posing before his follow-country men in u some- 
what capfaixhtm manner as a popular leader and 
liberator, whose mission was to deliver them from the 
tyranny of caste. Hut such an opinion is now known 
to be based on mistaken assumption#. W liat ought 
rather to he churned for him is that lie was the lirst to 
establish a universal brotherhood (Sangha) of cconobito 
monks, open to all persons of all ranks. In other 
words, he was the first founder of what may be called 
a kind of universal monastic communism (for Buddhist 
monks never, as a rule, lived .done), and the first to 
affirm that true enlightenment — the knowledge of the 
highest path leading to saint ship — was not confined to 
the Brahmans, hut open to all the members of all castes. 
This was the only sense in which lie abolished caste. 
His true followers, however, constituted a caste of their 
own, distinguished from the laity. From the want of a 
more suitable term we are forced to Kill them ’monks 1 .' 

And this Order of monks was not a hierarchy. It 
had no ecclesiastical organization under any centralized 
authority. It-s first Head, Gautama, appointed n<» suc- 
cessor. It was not the depository of theological learning. 
Nor was it a mediatorial caste of priests, claiming to 

* Oar ward monk (derived from jinra**, * one who live* •lour,') u 

not qalte mutable nnUdg it Iw uken to mean ‘ one who withdraws 
from worldly tfe.’ Beep. 75. 




S'ATL'EK or THE MONKISH BROTHERHOOD. 73 

mediate between earth and heaven. It ought not to 
bo called a Church, and it had no rite of ordination in 
the true sense. It was a brotherhood, in which nil were 
under certain obligations of celibacy, moral restraint, 
fasting, poverty, itineration and confession to each other 
— all were dominated by one idea, and pledged to the 
propagation of the one doctrine, that all life was in itself 
misery, and to bo got rid of l»y a long course of discipline, 
as not worth living, whether on earth or in heaven, 
whether in present or future bodies. The founding of 
a monastic brotherhood of this kind which made personal 
extinction its final aim, and might l»e co-extensive with 
the whole world, was the Buddhas principal object. 

In point of fact, the so-called enlightenment of mind 
which entitled him to Buddhahood, led him at the early 
stage of his career into no abstruse or transcendental 
region of thought, but took a very practical direction. 
It led him to sec that an association of monks offering 
equality of condition to high arid low, rich and poor, 
and n haven of refuge to all oppressed by the troubles 
of life, would soon become popular. Ilis Order started 
with first ten, then fifty, then sixty original members 
(see p. 45), but its growth soon surpassed all anticipa- 
tions, and its ramifications extended to distant countries, 
where, like the branches of the Indian fig-tree, they 
sent down roots to form vigorous independent plants, 
even after the decay of the parent stem. On this 
account it was called the fraternity of the four quarters 
(Oiltuddisa, Malta-vogga VIII. 27. 5) of the globe. 

In brief, a carefully regulated monastic brotheiliood, 
whicli opened its arms to all comem of «dl ranks, and 




74 



THE BUDDHIST OHDKR OK MONKS. 



enforced on its members tlio duty of extending it* 
boundaries by itinerancy, and by constantly rolling 
onward the wheel of the true doctrine (Law), constituted 
in its earliest days the very essence, the very liucklone 
of Buddhism, without which it could never have been 
propagated, nor even have held its own. 

But we repeat that in this, his main design, Gautama 
was after all no innovator; no introducer of novel ideas. 

Monachiau had always been a favourite adjunct of 
the Brahmanical system, and respect for monastic life 
bad taken deep root among the people. Thus we find 
it kid down in its most authoritative exponent, Manus 
Law-book (Book VI), that every twice-born man was 
bound to be first an unmarried student (Brahma-dari), 
next a married householder, and then at the end of a 
long life he was to abandon wife ami family and be- 
come a Sanny&si, ‘ascetic,’ or Bhikshu, ‘mendicant,’ 
wandering from door to door. In fact, it was through 
these very states of lifo that Gautama himself, ns a 
Kahatriya, was theoretically bound to have passed. 

Hindu monks, therefore, were numerous before Bud- 
dhism. They belonged to various acts, and took various 
vows of self-torture, of silence, of fasting, of poverty, of 
mendicancy, of celibacy, of abandoning caste, rank, wife 
and family. Accordingly they had various names. 'Hie 
Brahman was called n Sannvasl, ‘one who gives up the 
world.’ Others were called VairSgi, ' free from affec- 
tions Yogi, ‘seeking mystic union with the Deity; 
Dig-ambara, ‘sky-clothed,’ ‘ naked;' Tupasvi, 'practising 
austerities Yati, ‘restraining desires;' Jitendriva, 
‘conquering passion* Srnmana. ' undergoing discipline; 




NAME? GIVEN TO THE MONKS. 



75 



Bhikshu, 'living by alms;’ Nirgrantha, 'without ties/ 
Such names prove that asceticism was an ancient in- 
stitution. The peculiarity about Gautama's teaching in 
regard to monachism was that he discouraged 1 solitary 
asceticism, severe nustorities, and irrevocable vows, 
though he enjoined moral restraint in celibate fraterni- 
ties, conformity to rules of discipline, upright conduct, 
and confession to each other. 

His usual mode of designating his monks was by the 
old term Bhikshu (Pali Bhikkhn), ‘ living hyalins,' to in- 
dicate their poverty. They were also called ftriiinancra 
and ftramaqa (Pali Sumaqern, Siunnnn), ns subject to 
monastic discipline*. Those- who entered the stream 
leading to Arhntship (p. 132) wore called Ary a. 

The term ftravaka, * hearers.’ seems to have been used 
in the Hina-yana system to denote great disciples only, 
and especially these 'great disciples’ (p. 47) of Gautama 
who heard the Law from his own lips, and wore after- 
wards called Sthaviraa and became A r hats (p. 133). 
They had also the title Ayushmat, * possessing life.' 

We perceive again the close connexion between 
Braliinauism and Buddhism ; for dearly the Rrahma- 
<&rl and SannyasI of the one became the Sratnanera or 
junior monk, and ftramana or senior monk of the other. 

As to the name ft ram ana (from root ftram. * to toil ’), 
bear in mind that, although Buddhism has acquired 



1 AUliougli Ik- ditcoo raged, lie iliil not prohilat mnnk» fn*n living 
iniilmy liviiK. Siv- p. I J J a* to the I’latyeka-Bnclilhn. nod nolr. |x 
1 Some iirefer to ilrrivo tlm Pfili Samimo from tin- Sau-hpl i---l 
Sara, ‘to hi- quiet' Smiumlca, ' fri-queiiling Ixincing givimtl*,' i- n 
later name, lifo being to mouka a kind uf gruvoyunl. 





Til K BUDDHIST ORDBIt <>K MONKS. 



76 

tliu credit of being the cuftiiwt religions system in the 
world, mid its monks me among the idlest of men — as 
having 110 laborious ceremonies and no work to do for a 
livelihood — yet in reality the carrying out of the groat 
object of extinguishing lusts, and so getting rid of 
the burden of rviieat-xl existences, was no sinixniru if 
earnestly undertaken. Nor was it possible for men 
to lend sedentary lives, whose only mode of avoiding 
starvation was by house to house itinerancy. 

As to the form of admission, there was no great 
strictness in early times, when all applicants were ad- 
mitted without inquiry. It was only when the Order 
increased that murderers, robbers, debtors, soldiers and 
others in the King’s service, lepers, cripples, blind, one- 
eyed, deaf and dumb, and consumptive persona, and all 
subject to fits were rejected '. 

Originally it was enough for the Buddha to have 
said, ‘Come (ohi), follow me.' This alone conferred 
disciplcsliip. In time, however, he commissioned those 
he had himself admitted to admit others. Then the 
form of admission to the brotherhood was divided into 
two stages, marked by two ceremonies, which have 
been very unsuitably compared to our ordination services 
for deacon and priest. At any rate the term 'ordinal i<m ’ 
is wholly misleading, if any idea of a priestly commission 
or gill of spiritual jmiwcin lx- implied. 

The youthful layman who desired admission to the 
first degree, or that of 11 novice, had to be at least 



1 We may cot* that in the 1 Clej-C*rt,‘ a Sonskfit draiun w ritten in 
an early eeniury of our era, a gambler U«unee a Ikiddliirf monk. 




ADMISSION TO TIIK MONKHOOD. 



77 

fiftoou years old 1 (Mah&-v‘ I. 50) ; and such novices 
bud to bo at least twenty (from conception) before tlio 
sooond rite or admission to the frill monkhood. 

The first rite was culled pmvrajyi (peibbrijja), 'going 
forth from homo’ (Muhu-v* I. 12). Persons admitted 
to this first degree of monkhood were culled Snimnnera 
(Sumanera), ‘novices,’ though they were also called 
‘new’ or ‘junior monks’ (Navako Bhikkhu). They 
might bo admitted by a *>nior monk without appearing 
before any fornud conclave ; but not without the con- 
sent of their parents, nud not without attaching them- 
selves to a religious teacher (upudhyuyu) after their 
admission. It is said that (iuahmvu was urged by bis 
futher Suddhoduna require the -auction of parents, 
in rather touching and remarkable words, to the follow- 
ing eflect : — 

‘The love for a son cuts into the cuticle (ehavi); 
having cut into tha cuticle, it cuts into the inner skin 
(eiunrna) ; having cut into the inner skin, it cuts into 
tire flesh ; having cut into the flesh, it cuts into the 
tendons (iiliuru urnaharu) ; having cut into the tendons, 
it cuts into the bones ; having cut into the bones, it 
reaches the nmrrow (atlhi-mmju), mid abides in tho 
marrow. Let not Pubbujja, therefore, be performed on 
a son without his father’s and mother's permission’ 
(Mabii-vagga I. 54). 

The admission ceremony of a novice was extremely 

1 I licur from Ur. OMenlirijf that tin 1 mention in bis * liinldlo ’ «f 
twelve yiur« ns the minimum U a mistake. The of eiyln uni.- 
tioui'l by I'rof. Itlijn l*»viiU »a tlm minimum. niim in* » under n mb 
jieeuluir to Ceylon, if it be odmitsiUe nt nil. 





7« THE DUDDUXST ORDER OF MONKS. 

simple, :nul confined to certain acts ami words on the 
part of the candidate, witnessed by any competent monk. 
The Safigha, as a body, took no part in it. The novice 
first cut off liis hair, put on three yellow ragged 
garments (tri-civam). adjusted the upper rube so as 
to leave the right shoulder hare, and then before a 
monk repeated three times the three- refuge formula : 

' I go for tefage In tlir liudclha (liuJiIli.tni inniuain tf.uxli.imi}.' 

* [ go for nfutfu to llie Lair (DlmriiiMii i.irnnuni gacelulmi).’ 

• I go for refuge to tl*o Oixler (Siuighaip o»ntiuir;i gurebltaii).' 

Very remarkably, this, the only prayer of true Bud- 
dhism, resembled the G&yatri or sacred prayer of the 
Veda (repeated by the Brahma-idii) in consisting of 
three times eight syllables. But if the Buddhist novice 
had a right to the Brahma-Lari's sacred cord (upavita), 
this was probably abandoned on admission. He was 
then instructed in the Ten Precepts (Dasa-sila orsikkhft- 
jxula), which were really ten pruhibitions (Maha-vngga 

1. 56), requiring ten abstinences (vernmani) : — 

1. from destroying life (panatijiato = prAniitipiita) ; 

2. from taking anything not given (adinnftdflna) ; 3. 
from unchastity (ubrahmnLariyfi) ; 4. from speaking 
falsely (musa-vuda ™ mrislui-vadn) ; 5. from drinking 
strong drinks (suni); 6. from eating at forbidden times 
(vikfda-bhojuna) ; 7. from dnnciug, singing, music, and 
worldly s|>eetucles (visuku) ; S. from garlands, scents, 
unguents or ornaments ; 9. from the use of a high or 
broad bed ; 10. from receiving gold or silver. The 
prohibition not to receive money, even in return for re- 
ligious teaching or any supposed spiritual benefits con- 
ferred, was held to bo most important, and was fur a 




ADMISSION TO THE MONKHOOD. 79 

long time obeyed, though in the end monasteries be- 
came owners of large property and lauded estates. 

Of course the Ipusampada, or admission to full 
monkhood (described Maha-vagga I. 76), was a more 
formal ceremony. A conclave (Saiigha) of at least ten 
monks was required. Tho candidate bad to appear 
l-efore them, but was first instructed by some competent 
and learned monk as to the nature of the rite and the 
questions he would have to answer. This instructor 
also directed him to choose some other monk competent 
to act as his Upfidbyuyu (upa^hstya) or teacher for 
five years after his admission, and made him provide 
himself with an alma-bowl and with tho usual yellow 
monkish vestments. Then liis first instructor presented 
himself before the conclave and informed them that the 
Candidate was ready to be admitted. Thereupon the 
novice came forward, adjusted his upper garment bo as 
to cover the left shoulder, bowed down before the feet 
of the assembled monks, seated himself on the ground, 
and, raising his joined hands, asked three times for 
admission to the full monkhood, thus: — ‘ I entreat the 
Saiigha for full monkhood (Upasampadil), have com- 
passion on me ai>d uproot me (uUumpatu mam) from 
the world,' repeated thrice. 

Thereupon he was questioned [not, as in our Ordi- 
nation Service: ‘Are you inwardly moved by the Holy 
Spirit to take upon you this office V Not: ‘Will you 
apply all your diligence to frumc and fashion your own 
life and that of your family so as to Ito wholesome 
examples ?' hut] thus: — Are you free from leprosy, 
boils, consumption, fits, etc. f Are you u nude 'l Are 




80 THE BUDDHIST ORDER OF MONKS. 

you a free man and not in the royal service ? Arc 
you free from debts? Ifuvo you the consent of your 
parents ? Are you full twenty years old ? Have you 
an alms-bowl and vestments ? What is your name ' 
What is your teacher's name ? 

If the answers wore satisfactory the candidate 
was admitted. After admission no prayer was pro- 
nounced [such as in our Ordination Service : ‘ Wo be- 
seech Thee, merciful Father, send on Thy servant 
Thy heavenly blessing tluit ho may be clothed with 
righteousness ''] ; but he was informed that he was to 
trust to only four Resources (nissaya), aud to ubstnin 
from four chief forbidden acts (akaranlvani). These 
four Resources and lour Prohibitions were then com- 
municated to him thus : — 

First the four Resources as follow: — (r) Broken 
morsels given in alms for food ; (3) Rugs from a dust- 
heap for clothes ; (3) Roots of trees for an abode ; 
(4) Liquid putrefying excreta of cows for medicine. 
Note, however, that, in practice, indulgences (utirekha- 
labha) were in nil four eases allowed ; such as, better 
food when it happened to be given, or when invited to 
dinner by rich laymen ; linen, cotton, or woollen gar- 
ments, if dyed yellow und in three pieces (hut only one 
change was allowed) ; houses, huts, or caves to dwell 
in, when not itinerating; ghee, honey, or molasses when 
out of health (HahH-v' I. 3a 4). 

Next the four chief Prohibitions (compare the Ten 
Prohibitions, p. 78). viz. (1) Unchastity and sexual acts 



1 I givo lb's* quotation* to alio* tlie UlMuitabkoas of til* Icon 
4 Ordinalum ’ applied to PabLujjj. and Ui*6*mj.»da ia tbe S. It. E. 




ADMISSION TO THE MONKHOOD. 



Si 



of any kind ; (2) Taking anything not given, even a 
blade of grass ; (3) Killing any living tliiug, oven an 
ant, or worm, or plant; {4) Falsely claiming the extra- 
ordinary powers of u perfected saint (uttarimnniuea- 
dhanima. Maha-v° I. 78. 2). 

Clearly there were great temptations to gain celebrity 
by claiming such powers, or else this fourth prohibition 
would not have terminated the ceremony. 

So soon as a man was admitted to full monkhood, he 
went through a five years’ course of instruction in the 
entire doctrine and discipline, under the preceptor 
(Upiidhviya. Aenrya) who lunl been previously chosen 
and was required to be of ut least ton yea re' standing. 

This was a modification of tho ISnUiniuuiml rule that 
a student (Bmhma-dari) should study under his preceptor 
lor thirty-six years, or less, until he knew the Veda. 

The full Buddhist monk had in theory to dwell 
under trees or in huts formed of leaves (pon-sala - 
panna-sflln - parpa-&lft) ; hut practically ho resided in 
collections of simple mud or brick tenements, in cells, 
or in rows of caves hewn out of rocky hills. At any 
rate, collections of monastic dwellings, called Yih&ras 
were his usual abode during Vaasa (or the rainy season, 
see p. 82); and at such times he had fellow-monks 
(saddbivih&rika) living in companies around him, or 
in the same monastery. 

Strict discipline wax suppose 1 to he enforced, and yet 



1 In Mabft-vftggR 1 . 30. 4, live kimla of rivalling* firo niunrri lirdl < 
tree*, via. Viltinu. Aclilhnj-ogii* (a kind of home nhapei liVe ibtiMilt), 
(prfttudu), nuuttion* (horniya), and cu\<> 



G 





82 TUB BUDDHIST OKDKIl OF MONKS. 

there was no central authority, no Chief Hierarch, no 
Archbishop whom ho was hound ' reverently to obey.' 

Offences against the four forbidden acts were allied 
Puiajiki apcitti, ‘ offences inditing expulsion from the 
community of monks (Sahglia).' 

Then there were thirteen Sahghadiscsa a patti, as 
well ns certain Du k kata or lets* serious offences re- 
quiring only confession before the Hunglui, and dealt 
with by u Siiflghu-kannua, or act of a conclave of monks 
ini|<o»ing some penance. Tlioro were penances (I’riiyns- 
citt(i) for l\ mg, prevarication, abusive language, de- 
stroying vegetable or animal life, etc. (see IYitinn.kkhn. 
Paiittiyi dhammfi, and pp. 62, 84). The following 
practices were also incumbent on all monk- : — 

(1) The wearing vestments given by laymen (not 
purchased) and consisting of three lengths of yollow- 
coloured rags; or, if entire lengths of cotton cloths were 
given, the saleable value had to he destroyed by tearing 
them into at least three pieces, and then sewing them 
together; (2) The owning no possessions except the 
three cloths, a girdle, bowl, razor, needle, and water- 
st miner to prevent the swallowing of animalcuhe ; 
(3) The living only on food collected in u wooden bowl 
by daily going from house to house, but without ever 
asking for it : (4) The eating at mid-day the one meal 
so collected and at no other time ; (5) The fasting on 
four prescribed days : (6) The abiding in one spot for 
three or four months during Yassa, ‘the rains' (from 
middle of June to middle of October), when itineration 
would involve trampling on vegetable and insect life; 
(7) TLo refraining from a recumbent post.*- 




monk’s daily life. 83 

circumstances ; (S) The visiting cremation-grounds for 
meditation on the corruption of the body. 

In truth it might almost bu said that in every 
movement and action, in wukiog and sleeping, in 
dressing and undressing, in standing and sitting, in 
going out and coming in. in fasting and eating, in 
speaking and not speaking, tins Buddhist monk had 
to submit to the most stringent regulations. 

It was a noteworthy feature iu Buddhist monachism 
thut monks were never allowed to appear in public in a 
state of oven semi-nudity. • Properly clad,’ says the 
Sekhiyi dhunitnfi {4), * must tlio monk itinerate/ 'Not 
nakedness,' says the IttBimma-pada (141). • can purify 
a mortal who has not overcome diwires,’ The monk’s 
three garincnta (ticlvam - tri-61vara) wore an inner 
ouo (untara-v Osaka). another wound about the thighs 
(suughuU) and an upper robe (uttarfiaangu) worn loosely 
and brought round over the left shoulder. This consti- 
tuted an important distinction between the Buddhist 
monks and tlio Juinu and other naked ascetics whose 
want of decency the Buddha condemned. 

The Buddhist monk’s daily life probably began by 
meditation and by hisreciting or intoning (Bliiina, Sara- 
bhafifia) portions of the Law, or by hearing it recited, 
followed perhaps by basons in doctrine, or by discussions 
or by confessions. Next came itineration for food, fol- 
lowed by the one noon-day meal. Then catno rest and 
further meditation and recitation, while possibly the 
senior monks preached to laymen. Such preaching took 
place especially during Yassa. In later times tlio daily 
Ulrica included offering flowers, etc., at sacred shrines, 

o 2 




84 



THE BUDDHIST ORDMt OF MONKS. 



nnd repeating so-called players, which were merely 
forms of word 8 used an charms. 

To illustrate the immensely meritorious efficacy of 
constant recitation of the Law, u story is told of five 
hundred bats tlmt lived in a cave where two monks 
daily recited the Pharma. These but* gained such 
merit by simply hearing the sound flint when they died 
they were all re-l*irn ns men and ultimately ns god* 

Doubtless quarrels and limits of omission and commis- 
sion incurred among the monks, esjieeially during their 
residence together in' Vassn (miscalled the Buddhist Lent). 
We read of six monks named Chabbaggiya who were con- 
stantly committing offences. Hence a day called Puva- 
rapa (Pruvurana), ‘ invitation,’ was kept at the end of 
Yasm, when all were invited to assemble for confession 
and for felicitation, if harmony had been preserved. 

An important |uirt of ovary monk's duties was confes- 
sion oil Uposatlm (Upnvosatha) or fast-days (miscalled 
the Buddhist sabbath#)— which were kept at first on two 
days in each month, at full and new moan (correspond- 
ing to the Dnrsa and Paurnanulsi days of Brahmanism), 
und afterwards also at the intermediate days of quarter- 
Iiioon. On these four Upnsutha days the l';itiumkkliu 
or geiieml confession (p. 6;) was recited. Tim confes- 
sion was by monks to each other, not hv laymen to 
monks, though the four days were also olwcrml by 
lay, nen, and wc know that Asoka enjoined periodical 
ceremonies, and expression of sorrow for mum on the 



p<ut of all his subjects. Such confession did not cause 
remission of sin or absolution in our sense, but only 
release from evil consequences by penances (p. 62). 




THE 8AN0HA OK COM Ml MTV OF MONKS. S 5 

We have learnt, then, that Buddhist monks were not 
under irrevocable vows. They undertook to obey rules 
of discipline, but took no actual vows— not even of 
obedience ton superior. Buddhist monkhood was purely 
voluntary, so that all were free to come and go. It. had 
nothing hereditary about it like the rank of a Brahman. 

Wo have also learnt, tliat the term ‘priest’ is not 
suitably applied to Buddhist monks. For true Bud- 
dhism has no ecclesiastical hierarchy, no clergy, no 
priestly ordination ; no divine revelation, no ceremonial 
rites, no prayer, no worship in tire proper sense of these 
terms. Each num was a privet to himself in so far as 
he dc|>endcdon himself alone tor internal KaiiCtitieaiion. 

Evidently, ton. all Buddhist monks wen- integral parts 
of one organic whole. It is true that in the end they 
were collected in various monasteries, each of which 
practically became an independent Snngha (each under 
one Head) But in theory all were parts of one and the 
«une brotherhood, w hicli was republican and communistic 
in its constitution. And this word Sungha cannot he 
correctly rendered by 'church,' if by that term is meant 
an ecclesiastical body with legislative functions, embrac- 
ing clergy and laity united in a common faith and under 
one Head ; for as founded by the Buddha, it was not 
this. It was simply a vast fraternity intended to em- 
brace all monks of the four quarters (6iturdi*i) of the 
world, from the Buddha himself and the perfected Arluit 
(p. 133), to every monk of the lowest degree, hut not 
a single lay mall. Indeed in its highest sense tlw Sni'iglia 
comprised only true Nirvana-seeking monks who had 
entered the paths of true sanctification (p. 1 31)- 




86 



THE BUDDHIST ORDER OF MOJiKS. 



And here observe that, notwithstanding the stigma 
attached to unmarried women in India, Gautama in the 
end permitted an Order of Nuns (Pali Bhikklmnl) and 
female novices (Srtmanert, p. 47). The Culla-vaggn 
(X. 1. 3) relates how women were indebted to the 
intercession of a monk, Gautama's cousin Ananda, for 
permission to form an Order, and how Mnhtl-pnjnpntl. 
tlie Buddha's nurse (p. 24). la-cnme the first nun ; 
vet when Ananda first linked: ‘How arc we monks to 
behave when we see women?' Gautama replied: • Don’t 
seo them.' 4 But if we should reo them, what are we to 
do? ’ ' Don't speak to them/ ' But if they speak to us. 
what then?’ ‘Lot your thoughts be fixed in deep 
meditation’ (Sati upatlhupetahbil. Mahfi- parin' V. 23). 

Clearly the Buddha was originally a misogynist as 
well ns a misoganmt, and wished his followed t<> l>e 
misogynists also. Even when he had boon induced to 
admit the justice of the plea for women’s rights, he 
placed his nuns under the direction of monks. They 
could only he admitted by monks, and were subject to 
the male Order in all matters of discipline. They were 
under eight special obligations, one of which was to 
rise up in the presence of n monk, even if a novice. 

The Buddhas exhortation to the first 111m is note- 
worthy : — * Whatsoever. 0 ftofiimi (Muhi-pmjfipciti). 
conduces to absence of puss ion, to alienee of pride, to 
wishing for little and not for much, to seclusion nnd not 
to love of society, to earnest effort and not to indolence, 
to contentment and not to querulousness, verily that is 
the true doctrine ’ (6ulla-v* X. 5). 

It was oertuinly n great gain for a woman when she 




LAY-BRETHREN. 



8? 

was permitted to become a nun (or a Then) ; for, as 
11 nun, she could even attain Arhatship. This is clearly 
laid down in Culla-vagga X. i. 3. 4. No woman, how- 
ever, could attain to Buddhahood without being bom 
us a man, so that it could scarcely be Raid that in 
Buddha there is ‘neither male nor female.' 

Such, then, was the monachism which constituted the 
very pith and marrow of Buddhism. All truly on- 
lightened disciples of Buddha wero monks or nuns. 

Let us not forget, however, that in practice Buddhism 
admitted lay-brothers, lay-sisters, mnrriod householders 
and working-men, as necessary adjuncts. 

Yet they wero only uppetidnge*. Of course the 
Buddha knew very well that it was not possible to 
enforce celibacy on all his followers. He knew 
that having prohibited his monks from making or 
taking money or bolding property, they would have to 
depend on lay-associates and householders for food, 
clothing, and habitation, and that, if every layman were 
to become a monk, there would bo no work done, no 
food produced, no children born, and in time no 
humanity — nay, no Buddhism— left. 

Universal monkhood, in short, might have been a con- 
summation to be aimed at in some Utopia ; but was 
practically unattainable. In fact Gautama had to take 
the world as he found it, and the very idea of a world 
perpetuating itself— according to his own theory of a 
constant succession of birth, decay, and reproduction— 
implied that a youth, on reaching manhood, married, 
had children, worked and earned a livelihood for their 
support. He could not impose this hnrdcii on others. 




SS THE BUDDHIST 01IDER OF MONKS. 

Besides, the generality of people were in Gautama's 
day what they are in India now-n-duys— bent on curly 
marriage, and resolute in working hard for A livelihood. 
Even Munu only enjoined celibacy on young religious 
students nnd on old men, though there were occasional 
cases of per|K‘tual (nni.«!i{hik:i) Bialuuft-carins. 

Without doubt, oelilocy in instances of oxtnumluinry 
suietity has always comnumdrd res|* rt in India; but 
in no country of tho world has married life I veil so 
universally honoured. It is not very likely, then, that 
the following sentiments, enunciated by the Buddha, 
could have met with general approval : — 

• A wise man should avoid married life (abrahma- 
6ariyam) as if it were a burning pit of live coals' 
(Dhammika-Sutta 2 1). 

' Full of hindrance* is married life, defiled by pas- 
sion. How cun one who dwells at home live the higher 
life in all its purity? ‘ (Tuvijjii-Suttu 47). 

And in reality Buddhas anti-matrimonial doctrines 
did excite opposition. The people murmured and wiid, 
• He is come to bring childlessness among us, ami widow- 
hood, and destruction of family-life.’ Indeed, the two 
facts— first, that the foundations of Buddhism were 
not laid (as those of Christianity notably are), on the 
hallowed hearth of home and on the sacred rock of 
family-life with its daily round of honest work ; and — 
secondly, that the precept enjoining motikhoud and 
abstinence from marriage was not combined with nny 
organized ecclesiastical hierarchy under a central govern- 
ment, are sufficient to account for tho circumstance that 
Baddhiam never gained any real stability in India. 




DUTIES OF IAV-BRETHRF.X. 



Sg 

Xo doubt lay-brethren were always welcomed ; but 
they were bound to Buddhism by very slender tic* in 
regard to dogma, and were only expected to conform 
to the simplest possible code of morality. 

Probably the only form of admission lor a layman was 
tbe repetition of the 2+ syllables of the three-refuge 
(tri-samm) formula ‘ I go for refuge to the Buddha, 
his Law and his Order’ (p. 78). It was of course 
understood that he was to abstain from the five gross 
sins (p. 126). but he was already bound to do so by 
the rules of Hindu caste and family-religion. The 
chief test of his Buddhism was his readiness t<* servo 
the monks. It was tor this reason, I think, that lay- 
adherents were not culled, fts might have Ucn ex- 
pected, Sravukns, 1 Hearers,’ but simply U pfisukus, ‘ Ser- 
vers,’ and in the case of women I'piisikus, They could 
not lie called disciples of Buddha in the truest 
unless they entered hi* monastic Order. 

Of course the majority of Buddhist househuldera 
never cared to do this. Their chief religion consisted 
in giving food and clothing, earned by daily toil to the 
monks If they failed in this, there was only one 
punishment. They were forbidden the privilege of 
giving at all, and so of accumulating n store of merit. 
No monk was ullowed to ask them for a single thing. 
Of course, too, the majority of Buddhist householders 



1 < \om|ciriu£ WWtrro with Kartcm M<iDoi*lri*m, I may ivnuulc 
that the duer duty of the liy-bitLhren attached to tin* Ci-liTr inti 
inoiuAtcry at Fountain’* Abbey was to wait U|*m the inmifc*, |»i»»iim 
fcod and «»oV: it for tlirm; n:nl u*c Inrn from the Timti i»! lK««iuU r 
24, 18B5, tint the same duty devolved on the Cart)iii*i»ii by -brother*. 



<K> 



Till! BUDDHIST OlIDKIt "I* MOXKS. 



worn worldly-minded ; liny "ere ii«« believers in ultra- 
pessimistic views of lilt*. They looked for a life in 
some heaven, not Nirvana. Yet in theory all laymen 
might enter (lie path* of Rinctificatinn (p, 133), ami 
thousand* of turned men are said to have dune *» 

A layman's progress hmvever. towards Arhatship, ex- 
cept through monkhood and abandoning the world, was 
almost lm| sdcwly Inured. At page 264 uf the Milinda- 
panha it is implied that an earnest layman might be- 
come an Arhat, even while still a layman, hut he had 
either to enter monkhood or else to paw away in 
Pnri-nirvilrm (p. 140) at the moment of becoming so. 

The best proof of the truth of this view of the 
matter is, that after a layman had attached himself 
to the Buddha, the Law, and the Order, lie was not 
m-piired to undergo any initiatory ceremony, like bap- 
tism, or to receive any stamp of membership, nr to 
awumo a peculiar drew, or to give up all belief in lii.s 
family religion, or caste-customs. In short, ho did not 
as a lay-brother break entirely with HinduiMii. 

That universal tolerance was of the very en-cnco of 
Buddhism iH indicated by Asokit’s twelfth .diet:— ’The 
beloved of the gods honours all forma of religions 
faith — there ought to he reverence for one's own faith 
and no reviling of that of othcra.' Compare p. 1 26. 

Nor did Gautama himself ever set an example of 
intolerance- He never railed at tho Brahmans, lie 
treated them with respect, and taught others to do so ; 



' Th- CUronicUtt of Ceykrn stole (lint Wo.coo luymcn eaU-twl tin 
puha in Kaotinir. Compute DivyftwdSna. p. 1 ( 6 . lino is; p, 171. n. 




LATER HIERARCH V. 



91 

:iii<1 even adopted llie title Braliiiuinn for his own saints 
nnd Arliats (Dhanima-pcida 383-423). 

Wlmt lie opposed wan priestcraft nud eupomtition, 
not Brahmanism ; as indeed other reformers luul done 
before him. Probably tho great receptivity of Buddhism 
was one of the muses that led to its decay in India. 

\ et Gautama’s victory over one of the most inveterate 
propensities in human nature—- the tendency to seek 
salvation through a mediatorial caste of priests— was a 
wonderful achievement. This is proved liy tho fact 
that his followers in other countries heearno re-ontan- 
glcd in a network n| prii-stepift, even Wore enslaving 
than that out of which he had rescind them. 

Koepjmi, Ithys Davids, and other writem have well 
shown that the Buddhism of Tihet, with it' Pope 
like grand LTimas — its cardinals and abbot#, monks and 
mendicant friars, rnuis and novices, nuionized saints 
and angelic hosts, temples and cosily shrineB, monas- 
tcries and nunneries, images and pictures, sdtnra and 
relics, r lilies and mitres, rosaries and consecrated water, 
litanies nnd chants, prooessions and pilgrimages, conies 
sions and penances, liell-ringing and i license — is in every- 
thing, except doctrine, almost a counterpart of the 
Itomish system. How little could the Buddha have fore- 
seen such a development of his brotherhood of monks, 
whose chief duties were meditation and itineration ! 

And what is to lie raid of tho present condition of 
the Buddhist, monkhood ? Do we see anywhere evi- 
dences of that enlightenment of mind which Buddhism 
claims ns its chief characteristic ! 

When I was travelling in (leylon, I met n few learned 




THE ni'DDllIST ORDER OF MONKS. 



02 

monk*, but the majority seemed to rne idle. ignorant, 
and indifferent- 

Iii Burma the monks arc called Pungis (Pliungivs), 
and are n little more active, livery youth in Burma 
is supposed for a time to inhabit a monastery. 

In Tilwt tlm monks arc called Lilians (a lower title 
being Gelong) and constitute a Large proportion of the 
)H>|>nhitioii. II icv arc -In vi* to gross Mipeistitions. 

■Some me mere devil •channel*. it belief in the power of 
evil spirits king I lie chief religion of the people. 

in Chinn the monks arc culled I lo-slmng (or llo-sung). 
They constitute the only section of the |H>pulutioli whn 
have a right to be Called Buddhists, though, after all, 
they are merc pseudo-Bnddhiats. Professor Ix-gge in- 
forms-me that lie has known a few learned men among 
them, and learned works have been written hy them. 
But the general testimony of Kurufieans in China is 
that the mass of the inntiU there are simply drones, or 
aimless . I real mis. who go through their rejictitioiM by 
rote. Almost all are conspicuous Inr apathy, inertness, 
and a vacant idiotic expression of Cotinteuuiiec. 

< ‘(early we have in their condition an e\uinplu of the 
fact that own niontl ivstr.iiut, if lurried to the extreme 
n! eXtiliglli*ltili;' all tliO natural a llivt iniis ami tlettirCfl, 
nuiKt ineviluMv he liillo\vt*i I hy a Xcim^is. Surely wo 
liavr in ll|UK- iinuilcish fr.itiTiiitii s an illustration of the 
trntli llmt any tmnsgrusHion of tlic Iuw& of nature, 
comiQon-«oiiM% and tvntton — any suppression of the 
primary instineU of Immunity', muat in the end incur 
tlic ]>enalty attached to every violation of the eternal 
ordinances of God. 




LECTURE V. 

The PhiloatijJiieol lloetrlne* of Bvildhitm. 

One of tlic most noteworthy points in the early 
history of Buddhistic thought i* that while Gautama 
Buddha denied the existence of Brahma «* :* personal 
Creator, and repudiated the Veda and all V. dicNicrilire* 
and ceremonial ulwervuiuv*, h«> at the Mine time made 
the phiUnopltieal toaeLiUg ofthe Illulihiali- the]-<int 
departure for his own jiecnliar phib"»*phieid leaching. 

Another noteworthy point is that while Buddhism 
was undoubtedly a modification of philosophical Brah- 
manism, the latter was also modified hy un interchange 
with Buddhistic Ideas. 

It may certainly bo questioned whether Gautama 
himself in the ea rly stages of his career, over caused 
much offence to the most orthodox Bnilimuns by the 
free expression of his opinions. He did not spare either 
his criticism or sarcasm, but it is well known that the 
Brahmans were not only tolerant of criticism ; they 
were equally critical themselves, and delighted in con- 
troversial discussions, as they do to this day. 

Iu the T. vijja-Sutta an account is given of a dis- 
cussion in which, though Gautama expressed him-df 
strongly, he does not seem to have excited nnv wrath 
in his opponent — a Brahman named Yasettlm. 




94 T1IE PHILOSOPHICAL DOCTRINES OF BUDDHISM. 

Tho argument attributed to the Buddha is so re- 
markable that a portion of it may l>c given here : — 
‘Then you siy, Vasettho, that not one of the Brah- 
mans. or of their teachers, or of their pupils, even 
up to tho seventh generation, law ever seen Brahman 
(the G<«1 of the Brahmans) faco to face. And that 
even tla» Itishia of old. the uttorvra of the ancient 
verses, which the Itiahmans of to-day so carefully 
intone and recite precisely its they have l>een handed 
down — even they did not pretend to know or to have 
seen where or whence or whither Bralmun is. So 
that tho Brahmans versed in the three Vedas have 
forsooth said thus : “To a state of union with that 
which we know not and have not seen, we can show 
the way and can say : * This is the straight path, this 
is the direct way which leads him who acts according 
to it, into a state of union with Brahman " 

‘ Now what think you, Vaaettha ? Does it not follow, 
this being so. that the talk of the Brahmans, versed 
though they l>e in the three Vedas, is foolish tulk \ 

• Verily, Vasettha. that Brahmans veracd in the 
three Vedas should he able to show the way to a state 
of union with that which they do not know, neither 
have seen — such a condition of things has no existence. 

‘As when ii string of blind men am clinging one to 
the other, neither con the foremost see, nor can the 
middle one we, nor can the hindmost see, just bo is the 
talk of the Brahniaus versed in the three Vodan 1 .’ 

These no doubt were trenchant words, but it might 
easily be shown that the Brfthmans themselves did not 

‘ Sm T evijjn.Sutia, S. B. E. ft 14 . IJ 





THREE WAYS OF SALVATION IN WUUMAXISM. 95 



scruple to use almost as strong language against their 
own revelation. For instance, the ^handogya Upani- 
shad (p.473) speaks of the Veda as ' mere name’ (iianut 
eva). The Brihadiiranyaka Upanisliad declares tlint 
when a man is in a condition of knowledge, ‘ the gods 
are no gods to him, and the Veda no Veda;' and the 
Mundaka describee the sacrificial Veda as inferior to 
Brahnio-vidyfi. 

And in truth every Hindu was allowed to choose one 
of three ways of securing his own salvation. 

The first was ‘the way of works’ (Knnnu-mnrga). 
that is to say, of sacrifices (Yuji'ia), i>f oeremonial ritis, of 
lustral washings. |ieiiaiie«< and pilgrimages, as enjoined 
in the Mantra and Brulmmiuv |*>rti«m of the Veda, in 
Manu, the Law-books und ports of the Puifuuis. 

The second was ' the way of faith ' (bhakti), meaning 
by tluit term devotion to one or other of certain com- 
monly worshipped personal deities, — a way leading in 
later times to the worship of Siva and Vishnu (un- 
folded in the Puranas), and involving merely heart- 
devotion, without sacrificial or oereinonial acta. 

The third was 'the way of knowledge’ (J liana), as set 
forth in the U paniahads. 

The mediteval Bruhman Kuniurila— a really historical 
teacher— advocated the first way ; another teacher of 
less note. Siindilya, advocated the second ; another cele- 
brated historical teacher, Sankara, advocated the third. 

Kven in Gautama’s time any one of these ways or all 
three together might he chosen, so long as the authority 
of the Briihmans was not impugned. 

This, at least, is the general teaching 1 f the Bhagavml- 




96 THE PHILOSOPHICAI. I 1 OCT RISES OF BUDDHISM. 

gltii — an eclectic work which is the most popular ex- 
ponent of the H indu creed 

Yet even the Author of (he Bhagavad-gita had a 
preference for the wav of knowledge. In one passage 
(II. 42) he describes the Veda as 'mere flowery doc- 
trine’ (piishpitn v$ 6 ), and is careful to point out that 
works must he performed as acts of devotion leading to 
absorption into the Supreme iBrahma-nirvarmm). 

Indeed there can be no doubt tliat it was generally 
held by the Brahmans of Buddhas time that the way 
of knowledge was the highest way. But this way was 
not open to all. It was reserved for the privileged 
few — for the more intellectual and pliilnw>phirnlly- 
rninded Brahmans. The generality of men had to 
oontent themselves with the first and second ways. 

What the Buddha then did was this: — Find lie' 
stretched out the right hand of brotherhood to all 
mankind by inviting all without exception to join his 
fraternity of celibate monks, which hi 1 wished to be 
coextensive with thu world itself. Then be uliolished 
the first and second ways of salvation (p. 95), that is, 
Yajiia, 'sacrifices/ and Bhakti, 'devotion to personal 
gods,' and substituted fiir these meditation and moral 
conduct as the only road to true knowledge and emanci- 
pation. And then, lastly, lie throw o)>cn this highest way 

1 'five vrneniltlc Sviuiii Sri ill Saraevati, iu »ei*ling me 

» ropj 'll'’ nhi-*usl-il4 with a nvrti i.nl conreaitorjr, wjh, ’ It i> 
tlw l««t of ull book* on llte Hindu religion. ami contains tin- c— mice 
of all kiula of religious phikeojihy.' 1 find in the Madras JVino for 
Octobor 19, 1886, the following: • At s mwting of tho " Sn.irty for 
tho Propagation of Tme Religion,’’ at 6 p.ui. to -day, the HSugnTad- 
giti will be read and explained.* 




the buddha’s one way of salvation. 97 

of true knowledge to all who wished to enter it. of 
whatever rank or caste or mental calibre they might 
be. not excepting the most degraded. 

Without doubt the distinguishing feature in the 
Buddha’s gospel was that no living being, not even the 
lowest, was to be shut out. from true enlightenment. 

And here it will he necessary to inquire more closely 
into the nature of that knowledge which the Buddha 
thus made accessible to every creature in the universe. 

Was it some deep mystery ? Some occult doctrine 
of physical or metaphysical science ? Some startling 
revelation of a law of nature never before imparted to 
the world? Was the Buddhas open way very difleicut 
from the old. well-lVnced-cilT Biahnianic-.il way ! 

Of one |*)int we may be certain. lie was too 
sensible to cast aside all ancient traditions. Nor was 
lie a mere enthusiast claiming to be the sole possessor 
of a new secret for regenerating society. 

Unhappily, however, we are here met by a difficulty. 
The Buddha never, like Muhammad, wrote a book. or. 
so far as we know, a line. He was the Socrates of 
India, and wc are obliged to trust to the record of lib 
sayings (see p. 38). Still we have no reason to doubt 
the genuineness of what waa for some time handed 
down orally in regard to the doctrines he taught, and 
we are struck with the fact that Gautama called 
his own knowledge Hodhi (from ludh, ‘to understand’), 
and not IWa (from 1 -id, ' to know '). Probably by 
doing so he wished to imply that his own knowledge 
was attainable by all through their own intuitions, inner 
consciousness, and scdf-enlightcning intellect, and was 

u 




y8 THE Pnit-OSOPHICAL DOCTUISKS OF miHHIISM. 

to be distinguished from Veda or knowledge obtainable 
through tlie Brflliiimns alone, and by them through 
supernatural revelation only. Hence, too, ho gave to 
every being destined lu become a Buddha the title 
Bodhi-sattva (Undlii-sntta), ‘one having knowledge 
derived fnun eetf-eiiVghleutng inteUcet for his ehsencu.' 

But it should bo tailed, tliat oven in the choice of 
n nnme derived from the Sanskrit root budh, the Buddlut 
only adopted the phraseology of the Saukliyu philo- 
sophy and of the BrAhmayas. The Siihkhyu system 
made Buddhi, ‘ intellect,' its great principle (Mahat), and 
the Satapatha-brAhmapa called a man who had attained 
to perfect knowledge of Self prati-buddlm It may 
be pointed out, too, tliat Manu (IV. 204) useB the same 
root when he calla his wise man Budha. 

Moreover, the doctrines which grew out of his own 
special knowledge Gautama still edled Dhanua (Dham- 
ma), ' law,' using the very Rime term employed by the 
BrAhmans— a term expressive of law in its most com- 
prehensive sense, as comprising under it the physical 
laws of the Universe, as well as moral and social duties. 

In what, then, did the Buddha’s Dhnrma differ from 
that of the Brahmans ? One great distinction certainly 
was that it contained no esoteric (mhasj’a) and meta- 
physical doctrines in regard to matter and spirit, 
reserved for the privileged few ; yet some of its root- 
ideas were after all mere modifications of the Saiikliyu. 
^ oga, and Vedanta systems of philosophy. His way of 
knowledge, though it developed into many paths, had. 



1 MV. j. 1. 17. Tbi» bb» fiisi pointed out b) Frofcwor A. Water. 




ALL LIFE IS MISERY. 



09 

the same point of departure. It was a knowledge of 
the truth, that all life was merely one link in a aerie* 
of successive existences, and insejmrubly bound nj> with 
misery. Moreover ns there were two causes of that 
misery— lust and ignorance— so there were two cures. 

The first cure was (he suppression of lusi and desire. 
especially of all desire for continuity of existence. 

The second cure was the removal of ignorance. 
Indeed Ignorance was, according to Gautama, the first 
factor in the misery of life, and stands first in his chain 
of causation (p. io»). Not, however, the Vedfintist’s 
ignorance— not ignorance of the tact that man and the 
universe arc identical with God, but ignorance of the 
four truths of Buddhism (p. 4$):— ignorance that all life 
is misery, mid that the misery of life is caused l.y in- 
dulging lusts, und will cease by suppressing them. 

It would be easy to show how all Indian philosophy 
was a mere scheme for getting rid of the bugbear of 
metempsychosis, and how common was the doctrine 
that everything is for the worst in the worst of all 
possible worlds This was taught by the Brahmans five 
centuries B.C., and continued to be a thoroughly liiudu 
idea long after the disappearance of Buddhism. Wit- 
ness the following from the Maitrayani Upanishad : — 

In this weak body. ever lLabli 
To wrath, amhitioo, avarice, illu-ion, 

To fear, grief, envy, hatred, separation 
From tlioso we hold meat deur, luuoriiition 
With tIio*e WO hntc; continually exposed 
To hunger, thirat, disease, drcriptudo, 

Kmtciution, giowth, decline mid death, 

Wlmt relish cun there he for true eijovuv lit I 



H 2 




roo THE PHILOSOPHICAL DWriUNKS OF BUDDHISM. 



Also tlie following, from Mami (VI. 77): — 

Tliia body, like n boaw curnfxmd <»f tlu- (fivo) idem* nt* f with Imhic* 
for ita rafter*, tendon* for it* I'mint'ctiug link*. IU*lt mid hWI for it* 
mortar, 11 k in for it* covering; tl»i- buun? li IIi*« 1 wit It inifmiitii*, iu- 
ftaud by tomnr and old sig«\ Ih*t K*nt of dixuH*, full ut |iuin ami 
puwion, and not lasting— ft tttuii ttlght a itainly ti> ahuiidoit. 

Also Blisirtri-linri (VairfigYu*&itak:i III. 32. 50): — 

Enjoyment* 4H? nlliijrd by f«*r of sic kite**. 

HW* lnx I Wl» Abuiulunt >t ini tb 

la siibjtvt to exaction, dignity 
Kttcountrre ritk uf in%oU, itrcogth i% ever 
In lUngt-r of orifadihmail by foe®, 

A handsome form ia jMpAidcd by women. 

8<ripturn is upon to omnlts of critics, 

Merit incurs tlio spite of wicked men, 

Thf b*;dy I ires in comtant dread of death — 

One court* alone is ]**oof uguuud alarm, 

Itanomico tho world* and toiMy tnny be iron. 

One hundred year* 1 Ik the appoint**! a|i*i 
O f human life, ono Jtulf of lids goes by 
Iu aloof* and night ; rsu? b;df ibo otlnr luilf 
In childhood nml old ngr; the r**t i* |KU4K'd 
It! aicktirar, ^'filiation, fuiii, ruul sen'ko— * 

Ib»»r <qii a human Wing iiml delight 
In such A life, vuiti iw * watery bulddo l 

No doubt this kind of peaMtuixin b;is always found 
ndvix'utefi in all ages, and among nil nations in Kumpu 
us "oil as in Asia. It was a lavouiito idoa with tlio 
Stoics, and it has found favour with Schopenhauer, 
Von Hartmann, and other modern philosophers; and 
Shakcsj>care makes Hamlet give expression to it. 



' Centenarian. {Sntaj-u*, Satn-Tar-lia) worn lo line been latlx-r 
cocnon in India in ancient time*, if we may judge by tl» allutiims 
to them in M»nu tod olberwoiki Sw> Menu HI. 186; XL 135, 137. 




I'KSSIMIST PHILOSOPHY OK INDIA. 



IOI 



Happily the general tone of European philosophical 
thought is in another key. and the admirers of Aristotle 
still constitute a majority in Europe. The great 
Stagi rite described God us • Energy.' and in dealing 
with Solon’s dictum that 'no man can 1* called liappv 
while he lives.’ gave expression to a different belief. 
A good man’s virtuous energies, he asserted, nre in 
this present life a genuine source of happiness to him; 
misfortunes cannot shake his well-balanced character ; 
he surmounts the worst sufferings by generous mag- 
nanimity 

Even in the East a greater limn Aristotle and no lew 
on Authority than the Irue ' Light of the world'— Wh 
men rejoice mid leap for ji.v under the most trying cir- 
cmiihtanccB of life, and prize II is gift of Eternal Life u- 
their highest, good. 

In India, on tho contrary, the Upamshadsaml systems 
of philosophy which followed on them, all harped on the 
same string. They all dwelt on the sumo minor key- 
note. Their real’ object was not to investigate truth, 
but to devise a scheme for removing the misery believed 
to result from repented bodily existence and from all 
action, good or had, in the present, previous, and future 
birtha. 

The Siuikhya (I. i) defines the chief aim of man to 
Is* deliverance from the pain incident to bodily life ami 
energy; or according to the Nyuya (I. 2 ). from the pnin 
resulting from birth, actions, and false knowledge 



1 I In 4 re mrnlj rivi* ill* i-f wliat limy I- Umiul IiiIU 

in Amtotle'a Elliira. I. i uuil IV. 3. 





102 THK PHILOSOPHICAL D0CIB1XER OK BUDDHISM. 



while the Vedanta considers lhat ignorance alone fetter* 
the soul of man to a body, and the Yoga defines the 
divine Purusha( = the perfect man of Buddhism) as a 
being unutTected by pain (klcsn), acts, consequences of 
acts, and impressions derived from acta done in previous 
births (iisaya = snusk;im) 

Gautama’s sympathy with these ideas is shown by 
the twelve-linked chain of causation, put forth by him 
as an accompaniment to his four fundamental truths 
(p. 43). and thus expressed (Malia-vagga 1. 1 . 2 ) 

1 ’roin Ignorance comes the combination of formations 
or tendencies (instincts derived from former births ') ; 
from such formations oomes consciousness (vijnana); 
from consciousness, individual being (nanm-rupa, name 
and form) ; from individual being, the six organs of 
sense (including mind) ; from the six organs, contact 
(with objects of sense); from contact, sensation (vedniift); 
from sensation, desire (hist, thirst, tnnl.fi = trishyi) ; 
from desire, clinging to life (npudfma); in no dinging 
to life, continuity of becoming (bhavuj ; from continuity 
of becoming, birth ; from birth, decay and death; from 
decay and death, suffering. 

It is difficult to discover a strictly logical sequence 
in this curious twelve-linked chain. The firat link is a 



1 That ii, Snip k lid ri = Sunk rit Soiiskii-Kli j.l, (see p. 109), ‘quali- 
tie» forming charscter.' In Um Vnuesluku kv.Ioui Sjptktra is i« 
of «hs twenlj-fbur qualhto, tUe iclf-rcproductivc qmility. In the 
Yo*» «jWa> SuuklraB Aruya, • in.ptwkins dcrirnl fi.,ui Bdioii. duuc, 
in prnioiu birth-.' Awarding lo Chikleia. Supkaro i. pratticallys 
Ksran, ' Ml.' li may olio iiund fur ' ni.lh-r,' and for b quality, or 
mod* of Uing ; e.g, noi only for « plant but for it» grccuocM. 




TWELVE- LINKED CHAIN 01 * CAUSATION. 103 

Cause, the ten following are both causes and effects, while 
the last is an effect only. The second (sumklianl) in pre- 
sented to us afterwards ns one of the Skandlius (p. 109), 
and we have the whole inverted in it kind of circular 
chain in the form of question and answer, thus:— 

What is the otute of misery and suffering ? Answer 
— Old nge and death. What is the cause of old age 
and death ? Answer— Birth. Of birth ? Answer — Con- 
tinuity of becoming. Of continuity of becoming! 
Answer — Clinging to life. Of clinging to life ? Answer 
— Desire. Of desire ? Jnsieer — Sensation or perception. 
Of sensation? Answer— Contact with the objects of 
sense. Of contact with objects ? Aitxirtr — The orguns 
of sense. Of the organs ? dmo-vr — Name and form, 
or individual being. Of individual being — 

Consciousness (viilfiana = vijhuna). Of consciousness ' 
dtwrer — Combination of formations or tendencies (or 
those material and mental predispositions derived from 
previous births which tend to form character, compare 
p.109). Of such formations ? Answer — Ignorance. 

In tnakiug Ignorance (Avidyfi) the first cause of the 
misery of life, Gautama agreed with the Vedanta 
(though he explained Ignorance differently, see p. 99), 
while in the remaining chain of causes (Xiilana) we 
detect his sympathy with the Saukhya theory of a 
chain of producers and products. 

His own scheme of causation (often called Patidca- 
samuppildo) occupies an important place in Buddhistic 
philosophy, as supplementary to, and complementary of, 
the four truths (p. 43). It was thought out beli iv them 
(see p. 39) und is equally revered. 




04 TIIB PHILOSOPHICAL DOCTRINE* OK IHD 1 MIISM. 



It is on this account that the following celebrated 
formula is constantly repeated like a short creed, and is 
found carved on numerous Buddhist monuments: — 

' Conditions (or laws) of existence which prutvcd from 
a cause, the causu of the-c hath the Buddlia ex]>liiined, 
as also the ccssutmn (or destruction) of these. Of such 
truths is the Great Smnmrci the teneher 

This was the fonmilu ivpvateil l.y Assnji to Siirij.nttu 
and Moggallftiia <p. 47), when they wished to join (he 
I iuddlia and asked lor a summary of the spirit (artlia), 
not the letter (vyafljnim). of his doctrine (Maha-v* I. 23. 
5). Certainly the sorites-like form of statement in the 
scheme of causation had charms for Oriental thinkoi*. 

Moreover the Buddha’s method of clothing old trutle* 
in a new dress, or — to adopt another metaphor— his 
plan of putting new wine •«*- ” » had in 

something very attractive iu all Indian minds. 

Of wlmt kind, tlion, was the new divs* in which 
Guutamu clothed the great central doctrine of Indian 
philosophy — the doctrine of metempsychosis, involving 
the perpetuation of tlie misery of life • 

The Buddha, like all Indians, was hy nature a meta* 



1 Thr Pair in UjU-v' I. 3 . 1 , ft, is:— Yo dlummi ln'ln|iimlihn»i 
•‘•T'l'P Trlllifiiilo bIi* tn*m 61 yo liiixlhu evaiuv&dl M.lii- 

(D=nno. Tic form Tnlhogato i* ul*> in Siumkrii version*. 

D*' Dieliicnl form of the irntcticc lint* Income broken 

l’mfetmir Cowell inform* mo tint llu Sinskrit giren in hii old 
MS. *t Cambridge is : — 1 ' Ye dharm* br(a-]imliliBvil It. tint, 
Tnth&gitBh | Hy nvmUt tcaliAip «> yo nirodliu cvaip-rlxti M.lii- 
BrnaBnnk 1 Bunioof given » nlijhtly different vmi.ni. Urn*:— Ye 
dh.rn* I.eW-prnhli.vi, trthim ketum Tuthttgata uvf.cn lediuip .» etc. 
8omoti»« both <mnfat and not'd are omitted. 




ATTITUDE T0WA1JDS SANKHYA AND VEDANTA. IO 5 

physician. Ho had great sympathy with the philosophy 
of the ITpaniahnds. How was it that he disbelieved 
in the existence of Spirit as distinct from bodily organ- 
ism ? A little consideration will perhaps make clear 
how he was brought 10 his own peculiar agnostic view. 

Probably before bis so-culled enlightenment and 
attainment of true knowledge, he was as firm a be- 
liever in the real existence of one Universal Spirit as 
the most orthodox Brahman. He had become imbued 
with Brahmanical philosophy while sitting at the feet of 
hia two teachers A|ara and 1 'ddaku (p. 29). At that 
time there were no definite ur formulated philosophical 
system*, separated from each other by sharp lines. 
But the Sfnikhyn, Yoga, rthd Vedanta system- \>viv as 
sliming shape, tuiil the doctrines they einh<»be<l had 
been foreshadowed in the Upiuiishiwls, nnd were orally 
current 

In short, it had been rc]K.iitedly stated in the Upani- 
shads, that nothing really existed but the one univemlly 
preaent impeisonal Spirit, and that the whole visible 
world was really to be identified with that Spirit. 

Then it followed as an article of faith that man’s 
spirit, deluded into a temporary false idea of separate 
independent personal existence by tlio illusion of igno- 
rance, was also identical with tliat Ono Spirit, and 
ultimately to be re-abeorbed into it. 

Further, it followed that man’B spirit, while so 
deluded and so separated for a time from the One 
Spirit, was compelled to migrate through innumerable 
bodily forms, and that sucli migration entailed ini-et v, 
from which there was no escape except by u process of 




I06 THE PHILOSOPHICAL DOClUlXRft l»K lUDDIIlHM. 

disillusionment, that is, by dissipatin'' tho illusion of 
separate individuality, through the aapiii-ition of |,cr- 
fect knowledge leading to reunion with the One Spirit, as 
the river blends with tho ocean. And such knowledge 
wan best gained by suppression of the passions, aban- 
donment of all worldly connexions, and abstinence from 
all action. Finally, it was held, with apparent incon- 
wstenev, that tho storing up of merit by good works 
assisted in effecting this object liv raising a nun, not 
vet tit for union with the supreme Spirit, to forms of 
existence in which such uni ight In* ucoumplislicd. 

Now it is obvious that to believe in the ultimate 
merging of mail's [lersnnal spirit in One impersonal 
Spirit, is virtually to deny the ultimate existence of 
any human spirit at all. Nay more — it is virtually «<• 
deny the existence of n supreme universal Spirit also. 

For how can ft merely abstract universal Spirit, which 
is unconscious of peisonalify. !-• regarded as possessing 
any real existence worth U*iiig csillcd true life ? 

To assert that such a Spirit is pure abstract Hntity 
or (according to V«<d:Uitu phmseology) pure Kxistcnce 
(without anything to exist for), pme Thought or even 
pure Consciousness (without anything to think about, 
or l>e conscious nlxnit), pure Joy (without anything 
to rejoice about), is practically to nslucu it to pure 
non-entity. 

All that Gautama did, therefore, was to purge 
Brahmanism of a dogma which appeared to him to be 
a mere shorn (Brahma-jfila I. 26). 

lie simply eliminated as iniupciblc of proof the 
doctrine of a purely abstract, incorporeal spirit or self, 




TUE fit l)l>tl AS NROAtlOS'S. 



107 



whether human or divine. The assertion that tiny soul 
or self or Ego really existed (Atta-vftdo) wiw iui error. 
Jt formed one of the constituents of UpAdiiiia {|\ 109). 
and was the first of the ten fetters (Siikkuyn-dit\hi. 
p. 127). 

And with the rejection of this dogma, as incapable 
of demonstration, he found himself compelled to reject 
also, as beyond the range of man's cognizance, U10 
doctrine of any Supremo Being higher than the per- 
fectly enlightened mini. Like Knpilu in the Sahkhya 
aphorisms ( 1 . 92, V. 10) lie felt Ixmnd t«. admit: ‘It 
is not proved that there is n find.' 

This, indeed, is the chief foundation on which vests 
the assertion that Riiddhism is a more system of 
atlteistio negations. And there can he lio doubt that 
from one point of view its statements are steeped in 
negations, or rather perhaps in evasions. Its morality 
has been dewril*xl ns more negative than positive ; 
but this is scarcely correct, and it would be fairer 
to say that it delights in telling men to abstain 
from doing evil, rather tliun in urging them to active 
exertions for the good of others. It has many positive 
precepts. 

But if there was no probability of 0 soul existing 
separately from a body after death, how could there be 
any soul-transmigration ? How could there bo any 
agreement between the teaching of the Buddha and 
that of the Brahmans, in regard to this important 
central dogma ? The real fact was that the diverg- 
ence of the Buddhist doctrine* from the Briihinauit .il. 
as stated ill the l. panishuds, was not great it than 




108 THE PmiiOKOrniOAL I"" THINKS OF IlI DDHIiM. 

M ils lo bo expected from I In- difference of belief between 
the two systems in regard to the existence of soul. 

Plato, we know, held that souls • found their prisons 
in the same natures’ at death, so that an effeminate 
man might Is.* re-l>orn as a woman, a tyrannical man 
as a wolf, and SO on. In Mann's Liw-Umk is set forth 
a triple order of soiil-truiisiingnition through lower, 
middle, and higher planes of existence, ivsidling from 
gi*.sl, middling, and bad acts, words, and thoughts. 
Tims — to instance only the lower — the soul of a man 
who spoke ill of life teacher was destined to pass into 
an ana or a dog (II. 201), the soul of a thief might 
occupy a mouse (XII. 62), the soul of one who neglected 
his caste-duties might puss into a demon (XII. 71. 72); 
and greater crimes might lead to the soul's being con- 
demned to occupy plants, stones, and pi it ie nils. Then 
there wan also an intermediate condition of the soul. 
According to one idea it went lo the moon ; according 
to another it became a hungry' ghost which required 
food to be offered to it at the Sniddlia ceremonies. 

This theory of transmigration, according to tile Hindus, 
exphiined the origin of evil. Evil must proceed from 
antecedent evil, and the resulting jionalty must be 
borne by the evil-doer in succeeding existences. This 
was the terrible iunibns which it was the * greet 
object of I inlinn philosophers to remove. Tt was 
equally (■autumn's object, but how could he acoept 
suiil-truiiMiugrutinn, denying us he did the existence 
of any spirit, as distinct from material orgunizntion 2, 
He therefore put forth a view of his own, thus: — 
Every being is composed of five constituent elements 




THE BUDDBIST SKANDHA8 AND TRANSMIGRATION. 109 

called Skandhas (Pali Khandbo), which have their 
source in Uptd&na (p. 103) and are continually e.ml lin- 
ing, dissolving, and recombining, viz. 1 . F orm (Wlpa), 
ic. the organized body. 2. Sensatiou (red and) of pain 
or pleasure, or of neither, arising from contact ol eye, 
cur, nose, tongue, skin, and mind with external objects. 
3. Perception (sa/bla = taijila) of ideas through the 
sume sixfold contact. 4. Aggrcguto of formations 
(samkhdra = sarjekdra, i.e. combination of properties or 
faculties or mental tendencies, fifty-two in number, 
forming individual character and derived from previous 
existences; compare the similar sainkhavA pi. at p. 102). 
5. Conscionsnet-s (n'Aiidna = vijiMua) <*r thought 1 . This 
fifth is the most impoitant. It is tho only soul re- 
cognized by Buddhists. Theoretic. illy it jiemlics with 
the other Skandhas, but practically is continued, since 
its exact counterpart is reproduced in a new body. 

For although, when a man dies, nil the five consti- 
tuents of existence are dissolved, yet by the force re- 
sulting from his actions (iarma). combined with Cp> I- 
dana, 'clinging to existence’ (one form of the fetters at 
p. 127), a new net of five, of which consciousness in 
still the dominant faculty, stmts into being. Tho 
process of the new’ creation is so instantaneous that 
it is equivalent to tho coutinuance of the same per- 
sonality, pervaded by tho same consciousness ; though 
each personality is only really connected with the 
previous by tbe force of acts done and character 



1 Sometimes a human teing i» said to bo marie up of !>••• five 
elemeuts— ether, air, fire, water, r*rtl.— with a sixth culUJ Yijiiitu. 





1IO THE PHILOSOPHICAL KK Till XUS OF DI’DDIIISM. 

formed in each — such force ojiemtiiig through Upadfum. 
In short, to speak of t raiiHiuignitioii uf soul* in Buddhism 
gives a wrong idea. Meteni|tsyubo»i8 with Buddhists 
resolves itself into continuous metamorphosis or Palin- 
genesis. For no tm< Buddhist Micves in the passing 1 
of a anil from one body to another, but lather in the 
juicing on of what may im called act-force, or of the 
merit iuhI demerit resulting from a man's acts, so as 
to cause a continuous succession of tiunsfurmut ions — 
a succession which may lie compared to the rolling on of 
awheel through different scenes and over every variety 
of ground ; or to the burning on, through day and 
night, of a flame which is not the same flame at the 
beginning of the day and end of the night, and yet 
is not different. It is this act-foree (Karma), combined 
with Up&duna, ‘clinging to existence’ ( ahlii-nivcsa'fm 
the Yoga II. 9). which is the connecting link between 
each man's past, present, ami future bodies. 

In its subtle and irresistible ojieiation il may lie 
compared to storod-up chemical or electric energy. It 
is a force which continually creates and re-creates 
the whole man, and |>cr| situates his personal identity 
through separate forms, whether it coui|»c1h him to 
ascend or descend in the scale of being. 

Yet to say that personality is transmitted, wheu 
there is no consciousness of any continuity of identity, 
amounts, after ull, to deni.d of continuous existence. 

Bo it observed, too, that the scale of existence is 
limited in Buddhism to six classes of beings— gods*, 
men, demons, animals, ghosts, and dwellers in hell 
(p. 1 21). Transmigration is not extended, as in the 




1UK IU DDHa’s liKPRATED BIUTII8. 



I I I 



Biuhmanical system, to plant?, sti-cks, :»n«] stones : 
though a man could be bom as a troc-god (p. 1 12). 

Guutnimt Buddlm himself was merely the hist link in ;i 
long chain of cor|H>n»il forms, and he had lieen preceded 
by twenty-four Buddhas, who were to previous ages of 
the world wlmt ho was to the present. Every one of 
these Buddhas was gifted with the faculty of recollect- 
ing his previous personalities, and Gautama often gave 
an account of his own former existences. The stories of 
about five hundred and fifty of his births (Jutukua) are 
even now daily repeated to eager listeners in every 
Buddhist country, and are hcliuvod to convey important 
lessons, though full of puerilities. 

The interchange of ideas between Brahmanism and 
Buddhism is well exemplified not only by the twenty- 
five Buddhas, who correspond to the fourteen Maims, 
or representative men, in each world-period (Antara), 
but also by the birth-stories, many of which am mere 
modifications of old fables long current in India, while 
others have been imported from Buddhism into San- 
skrit literature. They constantly remind one of similar 
stories in the Pafidu-tantra, Hitopadcwi, Ramuyana, and 
Maha-bharuta. Tlie noteworthy point about the re- 
peated births of Gautama Buddha is, that there ap- 
pears to have been no Darwinian rise from lower 
to higher forms ; but a mere jumble of metamorphoses. 
Thus we find him bom four times as Mahft-brahraft, 
twenty times as Indra, once as a bare, eighty-three 
times as an ascetic, fifty-eight as a king, twenty-four 
as a Brahman, once as a gamester, eighteen times ns 
a monkey, six as an elephant, eleven as u deer, 




1(2 TUK FI11L080PIIICAL 1XKTIUXKS OK IWDDIIISM. 

once as a dog, four times us a serpent, six as a 
snipe, onoe as a frog. twice ns a fish, forty-three times 
as a tree-god, twice ns a pig, ten times ns a lion, four 
ns a cock, twice ns a thief, once as a devil-dancer, 
and so on. He was never bom as a woman, nor ns 
an insect, nor ns a Preta, nor an inhabitant of hell 
(p. r 19), and in nil his births he was a Hodhi-suttva 
(pp. 98, 135). And in all he sulTered and sacrificed 
himself for the good of the world. 

Hero is the substance of an account of Gautama’s 
birth as a hare, given by himself (6ariya-Pitaka I. 
10, translated by Dr. Oldenberg) 

* In one of. my lives I was a hare living in a forest. 
I ate grass and did no one any harm. An ape, a jackal, 
and an otter dwelt with me. I used to teach thorn their 
duties und tell them to abstain from evil and give alma 
on the four fast-days in every month. They did us I 
told them, and gave beans, corn, and rice. Then I said 
to myself : — Suppose a worthy object of charity passes 
liy, what can I give him ' I live tin glass only; I can- 
not otter a starving man grass; I must give him myself. 
Thereupon the god Sukra, wishing to test my sincerity, 
came in a Br.ili man’s form and asked mo for food. 
When 1 saw him I mid joyfully “ A noble gift will I 
give thee, 0 Briihniim ; thou obeervest the precepts; 
thou jiaiuest no creature ; thou wilt not kill mo for 
food. But go, collect wood, place it in a heap, and 
kindle a fire, Then I will roast myself, and thou 
may at eat me." 

‘ He said : — “So bo it," and went and gathered wood 
and kindled a fire. 




TWO TREVIOUfl BIRTHS OF THE BUDDHA. • 1 1 3 

‘ When the wood began to send forth flame. I leaped 
into the midst of the blazing fire. 

'As water quenches heat, so the flames quelled all the 
sufferings of life. Cuticle and skin, flesh and sinews, 
bones, ligaments, and heart— my whole bod/ with all 
its limbs — I gave to the Brahman/ 

Perhaps the best and meat often recited Jutaka is 
the last birth but one, in which he was born as prince 
Veasantara (VaisySntaru). This is called the Muhit- 
jataka, ‘great birth/ It may be summarized thus: — 
‘Vessantara (afterwards Buddha) was so liberal that lie 
gave to every one who asked. Among his possessions 
was a white elephant, which had the power of bringing 
down rain whenever it was needed. At last be gave 
away this also to a neighbouring country suffering from 
drought. This so incensed his own people that they 
persuaded the king his father to barysh him with his 
wife ond two children to the forest. They set out in a 
chariot drawn by horses. First he gave away the 
horns and next the chariot to BrihmanH who begged 
for them. Then when another Brahman naked for 
the children, Vessantara gave them up too. saying: 
"May I for this act become a Buddha!" In short his 
sufferings and theirs in banishment, and his generosity 
to every one, led to his recall with great rejoicings. 
When he died lie was bom again in the Tushita heaven, 
whence he descended as a white elephant into the womb 
of Mayft, and was bom as Gautama’ (p. 23). 

Another wise man of the East, who lived long before 
Gautama, spoke of ‘ the path of the just sinning more 
and more unto the perfect day/ Of this kind of pro- 

1 




114 Til E rnit/WOPIIICM. JMKTItlSKS of BVMIIIISM 



grossive advance towards higher planes of perfection, 
tlio Indian sago know nothing. Nor to the Buddha, of 
course, would the Christian idea of ‘original sin,’ or 
of imputed Perfection have conveyed any meaning 
whatever. With Gautama, righteousness and unright- 
eousness, holiness and sin, were the product of a man's 
own acts. They were produced hy no one but himself, 
and they were merely troublesome forces (see p. 124) 
causing, in the one ease, a man's re-birth cither in one 
of the heavens or in higher earthly corporeal forms, 
and, in the other, his re-birth in one of the hells or in 
lower corporeal forma * Not in the heavens,' nays the 
Dharama-pada (127). ' not in the midst of the sea, not 
if thou liidest thyself in the clefts of the mountains, 
wilt thou find a place where thou canst escape the 
force resulting from thy evil actions.' 

Here also iB the substance of a passage in the Deva- 
duta-sutta (translated hy Dr. Oldcnlx-rg) 

‘ Do not relatives and friends welcome a man who 
has ln*n long travelling, when he returns safely to his 
home I Even so, » righteous man. when he pnsses 
fn.m this world to another, is welcomed hy his good 
works, ns by friends. 

•Through the six states of transmigration docs the 
power of our actions lead us. A life in the heavens 
awaits the good. The wardens of hell drag the wicked 
before the king of hell, Yama, who says to them 
“ Did you not, when on earth, see the five divine 
messengers, sent to warn you— the child, the old man, 
the sick, the criminal Buffering punishment, and the 
dead corpse 1" 




RE-CREATIVE FORCE OF ACTS. I I 5 

‘And the wicked man answers : — " I did wo them.” 

•And didst thou not think within thyself : — “I also 
am subject to birth, old age, death. Let rne be careful 
to do good works ? " 

' And the wicked man answers : — " I did not, sire ; 

neglected in my folly to think of these things." 

'Then king Yama pronounces his doom: — "These thy 
evil deeds aro not the work of thy mother, father, 
relations, friends, advisers. Thou alone hast done 
them all ; thou alone must gather the fruit." And the 
warders of hell drag him to the place of torment, rivet 
him to red-hot iron, plunge him in glowing seas of 
blood, torturo him on heaps of burning coal ; and he 
dies not, till tin* last residue of his guilt has been 
expiated.’ 

And this Buddhist theory of every man's destiny 
being dependent on his own acts is quite in keeping 
with Bruhmanical ideas. ’In that (new body) he is 
united with the knowledge gained in the former body, 
and then again goes on working for perfection ; for 
even against his will he is forced on (from one body to 
another) by bis former works’ (Bbagavad-gltii VI. 43. 
44 ). And again: — ‘The act committed in a former 
birth (pQrva-janma-kritam karma), that is csdled ono’s 
destiny and again, ‘ As from a lump of clay a work- 
man makes what ho pleases, even so a man obtains 
whatever destiny he has wrought out for himself’ 
(Ilitopadesa, Introduction). In Brahmanism the in- 
fluence of Karma or ‘act ' in determining every being's 
form at the time of his own re-birth is universal. 

Thus also the Nyaya of Gautama (111. 132 ) affirms 




1 16 thr rniLOBOPDlOAi. doctrines of iwddiusm. 

that the new body (niter death) is produced through 
the irresistible force of actions done in the previous 
body (pQn’u-kritu-phiihinulKtinlhut t ul-ut |Kittih}. The 
cosmogony of the same philosophy (Vni.«c*ihika branch), 
taught that the emnonr renew of utcmnl atoms to form 
the world win* the result of Adrishfa or the 'unsec 
force ’ derive* I from the acts of a previous world. 

Wo arc reminded, too, of our poet's own sentiment 
•Our deeds still travel with us from afar, And what 
we have been makes us what we are ; ’ and of Don 
Quixote’s saying, 1 Every man is the son of his own 
works and of Wordsworth’s, * The child is father ot 
the man;’ and of Longfellow’s, ‘Lives of great men 
all remind ua, we can make ourselves sublime.' 

In short, we are the outcome of ourselves. Nor can 
ceremonies avail aught, nor can devotion to personal 
godH avail augllt, nor can anything whatever possess 
the slightest efficacy to save a man from his own acts. 

It is said tliut Buddhism leaves the will unfettered; 
but surely fatalism is taught when the force of one’s 
own deeds in previous births it held to bo irresistible. 

The only creator, then, recognized by true Buddhists 

is Act-force. * My action is the womb that hears mo.’ 
• 

says the Aiigntlnm Nikiiys. It is this Acl-lhriv that 
creates worlds. It is this A et- force, in conjunction with 
Upadana (p. toy), that creates all beings in any of 
the six classes into which they are divided— gods, men, 
demons, an i Dials, ghosts, and the dwellers in hell. We 
often Udk of the force of a dead man’s acts — of his 
being dead and yet speaking. It is this force which 
in Buddhism resists death ; for no force can ever bo lost. 




ACT-FORCE CREATING WORLDS. 



I>7 

And what does the modem Positivist philosopher 
nraert ? He maintains that loth body and mind art- 
resolved into their elements at death. The only im- 
mortal part of us consists in the good deeds, words, 
thoughts, and influences we leave behind ns.to be made 
use of by our descendants and improved on for the 
elevation of humanity. And the aggregate of these, 
combined with the force of will, constitute, according 
to the Buddhist, a power strong enough to recreate 
not only human beings but the whole material world. 

It was thus that the force of Gautama's own acts 
had constantly recreated him through a long chain 
of successivo personalities, terminating in the perfect 
Buddha, who has no further births to undergo. 

1 uni we now to that division of the Buddhist system 
which concerns itself with the external universe, and 
seeks to explain its constitution, form, and the various 
divisions of which it consists. 

And hero wo must be careful to note '* *-eculinr 
views of Buddhism, notwithstanding tin. ad- 

mixture of Briilimanicnl ideas. 

For Buddhism lias no cosmogony like the Said 
Vedanta, and Vaiseshiko. Nor dees it explain tUo 
creation of the universe, in our icnse. It only concerns 
itself with cosmology, and it dissents from Bralimauicul 
cosmology in declining to admit the eternity of any- 
thing whatever, except change or revolution or a suc- 
cession of revolutions. Buddhism has no Creator, no 
creation, no original germ of nil tilings, no soul of the 
world, no personal, no impersonal, ho Buprom undone, 
no antemundaue principle. 




IlS TilL- PHILOSOPHICAL IXHTBIMJH OF IU'DDIIIKM. 



It might indeed have Icon siip]Ni$ed that *ince Gau- 
tama denied the eternal existence of either a personal 
God or of Spirit, lie wuiihl at least have given eternal 
existence to matter. 

Hut no ; tliu only eternal things arc the Causality of 
Act-force and the Bucccmioii of cause and effect — the 
eternity of ' Becoming,' not of* Being.' 

The Universe around us, with ull it* visible pheno- 
mena, must lie recognized as an existing entity, for 
we see before our eyes evidence of its actual existence. 
But it is an entity produced out of nonentity, and 
destiued to lapse again into nonentity when its time is 
fulfilled. 

For out of nothingness it come, and into nothingness 
muRt it return — to m-appear again, it is true, but as 
a new Universe brought into being by the accumulated 
force of its predecessor's nets, and not evolved out 
of any eternally existing spiritual,* ,„. llcr i a l pcmi of 
any kind 

* tluit Universe after Universe iH like a suc- 

,ii of counties! bubbles f>r ever forming, ex pud- 
drifting onwards, bursting nlld re-forming, each 
oulible owing its ru-foriniitiou to the force generated 
by its vanished predecessor. Thu poet Shelley might 
have been called a Buddhist when ho wrote: 

Wurlde uu woddi uro n.llin^ net 
From muliun to dnaj: 

Like tl»c ImbUc* oil a river, 

S|nukling, bursting, bumo awny. (Uki.cak.) 

Or like lotuses, for over unfolding and then decay- 
ing, each decay containing the geriu of u new plant ; 




CYCLES OP THE UK1VEE3B 



119 



or like nn interminable succession of wheels for ever 
coming into view, for ever rolling onwards, disappear- 
ing and reappearing; for ever passing from being 
to non-being, and again from noil-being to being. It 
was tliis ceaseless rotation that led to the wheel 
being adopted as the favourite symbol in Buddhism 
(p. 12a). 

Christianity recognizes in a very different way 
this ‘law of circularity’ iu the physical world, as the 
Rev. Hugh Macmillan has ably puiuteil out. 

As to the question from whom ? or whence ! or how ? 
came the original force or impetus that started the first 
movement, the Buddha hazarded no opinion, lie held 
this to be an inexplicable mystery — an insoluble riddle. 
He confessed himself to be a thorough Agnostic, lie 
saw nothing but countless cycles of causes and effects, 
and never undertook to explain the first cause which 
set the first wheel in motion. It was not, then, without 
a deep significance that Gautama placed Ignorance first 
in his chain of Causation (p, 102. Note, however, the 
explanation given at p. 99). 

After all, these Buddhistic speculations amount to 
little else than Brahmanism stripped of some of its 
transcendental mysticism. W e know, for example, that 
the true Vedanta philosophy makes the Universe pro- 
ceed out of an eternal Illusion, or Ignorance associated 
with tlic impersonal Spirit Brahman, into which it is 
again absorbed. 

Gau it be affirmed, then, a Buddhist might say, that 
either this pure impersonal Spirit (or Ignorance) i' 
virtually very different from pure nothingness * 




J’O Till: PHILOSOPHICAL DOCTRINES OP BUDDHISM. 
Wliat says the author of Kig-veda X. 120?— 

Ill the Loginning there wa« neither nnnglit nor ought. 

Then then' woe Driller nicy nor atraim|i|*r« nbovc. 

Then fint Come lUrl.uen liiil in (hirkiuw, gloom in gloom; 
Next nil wuS n ntrr, nil x t-liM* imliurcet, 

In which the One lay void. thiMidcd in nothingnew. 

Then an to the vast periods called Knlpns or ages, 
■luring which (as ill Brilhmunisin) constant Universes 
are supposed ta appear, disappear, and iv-appear: — 
let it he supposed, say Buddhist writers, that a solid 
lock forming a vast cube sixteen miles high, and the 
same in length and breadth, were lightly nibbed once in 
a hundred years with a piece of the finest cloth, and 
by this slight friction reduced in countless ages to the 
size of u mango-seed ; that would still give you no idea 
of the immense duration of a Buddhist Kalpa. - 

And what, in conclusion, is the existing Universe? 
Buddhist writers make it consist of mi infinite number 
of Oakknvidns (Oukrit-valas) or vast circular planes, 
which for convenience may be culled spheres. Each 
sphere lias thirty-one Sattu-lokaa (Sattva-lokas) or 
dwelling-places of six classes of living beings, rising 
one above the other and distributed under three world- 
sy-'tenis. built lip in successive tiers through infinite 
space, below, u|»n, and above Mount Mem (or Sumcru) 
—the ideal central |*oint of the whole. This gigantic 
mythical mountain forms the mighty base or pivot of 
the sphere. 

First comes Hell with 136 divisions, to receive 136 
varieties of oficuders, all in tiers one above the other, and 
lying deep under the earth in the lower regions of the 




MFK IN THB HELLS. 



I 2 1 

Oak ra- villa. To be re-bom in Hell (Naraka) is the 
worst of all the six kinds of existence, reserved for the 
worst evil-doers, and although tlio punishment is not 
eternal, its shortest duration is for five hundred years 
of Hell, each day equalling fifty years of Earth. In 
Brali man ism there ore tweoty-oDo hells (Manu IV. 
88-90). Buddhism originally had only eight. The most 
terrific (Avici) is for revilers of Buddha and his Law. 

Above the subdivisions of Hell come the other 
sensuous worlds (Kilma-lokas), thus (2) the world of 
nuhuala ; (3) that of Pretos or ghosts ; (4) that of 
Aturas or demons; (5) the earth, or world of men. 
with concentric circles of seven seas. 

Having distributed all possible places of habitation 
for migrating beings under the three bends of Hell, 
four lower worlds, and twenty-six heavens (described at 
p. 206), Buddhism holds that thorc are only six forms 
or ways (gati) of existence through which living beings 
can paK<, and under which every thing that has life 
must lie classed, mid of these the first two ways are 
good, the last four bad. thus:— I. Gods; 2. Men; 
3. Aauras, or demons, inhabiting spaces under the 
earth ; 4. Animals ; 5. Pretas, or ghosts, rceeutly in- 
habitants of earth, and ever consumed with hunger and 
thirst ; 6. Beings undergoing torment in the hells. 

As to the gods, bear in rnind that Buddhism recog- 
nized most of the deities of Hinduism. Sec p. 206. 

Such gods existed in subtle corporeal forms, and, 
though not omnipotent, were eujxible of working benefit 
or harm. They were subject to the universal law of 
dissolution, and after death were succeeded by others, so 




1 ? 2 THK PHILOSOPHICAL DOCTIIINES <lF BUDDHISM. 



that there was not one Brahma or one Sukra, but manv 

• 

successive deities so named, and many classes of deities 
under them. They had no power of effecting any per- 
son’s salvation. On thu contrary, they hud to see to 
their own, and were inferior to the perfected man. 

Moreover, to he bom in the world of the gods seems 
not to have implied any vast accumulation of merit, for 
wo read of u certain frog that from simply listening to 
the Buddha's Voice, while reciting the Law, was horn 
as a god in the Trayastrioau heaven (Hardy, p. 392). 

In short, the constant revolving of the wheel of life 
in one eternal circle, according to fixed and immutable 
laws, is perhaps after all the sum ami substance of the 
philosophy of Buddhism. And this eternal wheel nr 
circle has, so to speak, six spokes representing six forms 
of existence. 

When any one of the six classes of beings dies, 
bo must be born again in some one of these same 
six classes for there are no other possible ways (gati) 
of life, mid lie cannot pass into plants, h tones, and 
inorganic matter, as in the Briilmiuuicul system (see 
p. 10S). If lie be born again in one of the bells lie is 
not thereby debarred from seeking salvation, and even 
if he lie born in heaveu as a god. be must ut some 
time or other leave it and seek after a higher state 
still — that of thu |icrfect man who has gained Nirvana 
and is soon to acliievc the one consummation worth 
living fir, the one crown worth striving for— extinction 
of pcrsural existence in I’ari-nirvutm (sec pp. 13S-142). 




LECTURE Vf. 



The Moral Up of Buddhism and its chief aim— 
Arhatship or B'irvdna. 

Tun first questions suggested by the subject of this 
lecture will probably be : — 

How could a life of morality bo iuculcatod by one 
who made all life proceed from ignorance, and even 
virtuous conduct in one sense u mistake, us loading to 
continuity of life, and therefore of Buffering 1 How 
could the Buddha's first commandment be. ‘Destroy 
not,' when his ideal of perfection was destruction I 
How could ho say, 1 be active,' when his theory of 
Kurina (pp, 1 10, 1 14) made action conduce to misery ? 

The inconsistency is evident, but it is no less true 
that, notwithstanding the doctrine that all existence 
entails misery, and that all action, good or bid, leads 
to future births, Gautama taught that the life of a 
man in higher bodily forms, or in one of the heavens, 
was better than a lifo in lower forms, or in 0110 of the 
hulls, and that neither a higher form of lifo nor the 
great uim of Nirvana could be attained without 
righteous action, meditation, and true knowledge. 

Buddhism, indeed, as we have seen, could not hold 
forth as uu incentive to good behaviour any belief 
in a Creator rewarding and punishing his erwituivn 
according to their works, or pardoning their sins. It 




J 4 



THE MORALITY OF Rl'DDIIISM. 



could not inculcate piety ; for ill true Buddhism piety 
was impossible : yet like Maim (II. 0) it made momlity 
(sila) the basis of Law (Pharma) ; it stimulated good 
conduct by its doctrine of repeated births, and by 
pictures of its numerous heavens, ami it deterred men 
from unrighteous acts by its terrible places of torment. 

Let it tlten le made clear from the first that 
Buddhism, in inculcating morality, used no word ex- 
preHhivu of morality, as founded on the lovo and fear 
of God, or of sin as an offence against God. 

In Buddhism the words klesa (kileso), ‘pain/ and 
akuflula, ‘demerit/ take the place of sin.’ and its perfect 
saint is raid to be ‘free from pilin’ (iiishkle&i) and from 
demerit, not from sin in our sense. By nil unrighteous 
act it meant an act producing suffering and demerit of 
some kind (p. 1 1 3), and it bade every man act righteously 
in order to escupc suffering and to accumulate merit 
(kuAala), and thus work out his own perfection — that 
is to say, his own self-extinction. 

Doubtless Buddhism deserves credit for laying stress 
on right belief, right words, right work, instead of 
on ceremonial rites; and on the worship of Hindu 
gods; but it had its own idea of right. It urged 
householders to abandon the world, or else to be dili- 
gcut in serving its monks for the working out of their 
own salvation; and while making morality, meditation, 
and enlightenment its indispensable factors in securing 
perfection, it made perfection consist in freedom from 
tho delusion that ‘lam;’ and in deliverance from an 
individual existence inseparably bound up with misery. 

Mark, too, another contradiction. It inculcated entire 




DIVISION OF THE MOKAL CODE 1 25 

self-dependence in working out this kind of perfection, 
and yet it set before its disciples three guides ; namely, 
the Buddha ’8 own example, the Law (Dharmn). and 
the example of the whole body of monks and perfected 
saints (SaPgha). 

We now turn to its fuller moral system, keeping this 
distinct from its philosophy and metaphysics, and freely 
admitting that there are in Buddhist morality many 
things, true, honourable, just, pure, lovely, and of good 
report 

It is fair to point out at the outset that Buddhist 
morality was not a purely external mutter. It divided 
men into the outwardly correct and internally sincere. 
The mere outwardly correct Buddhists might include 
monks as well as laymen, though a higher standard of 
profession was expected of monks. The internally 
sincere were the really earnest seekers after perfection 
(monks and laymen), and were divided into four classes, 
representing four conditions of the inner life, lower, 
higher, still higher, and highest, culminating in perfect 
Saintship, Arliatship, and Nirvana (p. 132). 

At the same time there was not much hope of saint- 
ship except through celibacy and monkhood ; for in 
true Buddhism the notion of holy family-life was 
almost a contradiction in terms. 

Of course the Buddhist morel code soon passed 
beyond the eightfold path propounded by Gautama in 
his first sermon (see p. 44), and Dr. Oldenberg has 
shown that in the absence of a systematically arranged 
oode, we may still trace out amid a confusion of pre- 
cepts the three leading duties of external moral conduct 




THE MORALITY 01* litDHHISM. 



126 

(hiln), of internal mental concentration (samadhi). and 
of acquiring true wisdom (pahufi = pnijilil). Compare 
Dr. Wenzel'* ‘ Friendly Kpistle.' 53. 

The five fundamental rule* of moral conduct (sila), 
or mtlier, prohibitions, wen- promulgated very earlv: — 
1. Kill not any living thing. 2. .Steal not 3, 
Commit not ndultcry. 4 - I*ic not. 5. Drink not 
strong drink. These five, having reference chiefly to 
ones neighlwmr, were called the fivefold law for all 
rl< ruse*, including laymen. They were taken from 
Brdhmnnism, but in the vows of the Snnnyasi the 
fifth was not included. It was Buddhism probably that 
first interdicted strong drink. It prohibited too what 
the Brahmans allowed— killing for sacrificial purposes. 

Five others of a more trivial character fur monks 
(often given in a different order, p. 78) were added : — " 
6. Eat no food, except at stated times. 7. Use no 
wreaths, ornaments, or perfumes. 8. Use no high or 
broad bed, but only a mat on the ground. 9. Abstain 
from dancing, singing, music, and worldly spectacles, 
to. Own no gold, or silver of any kind, and accept 
none (Wahtt-vagga I. 56). (This Buddhist Decalogue 
may Is- contrasted with the Mosaic Decalogue.]' 

All ten were binding on monks only, and for the 
third was then substituted ‘be absolutely chaste.' 

Sometimes not only the first five but the first eight 
were held to he binding on laymen. 

Another was added in later times Never think or 
say Unit your own religion is the beat. Never de- 
nounce the religion of others (see p. 90). 

Then, although only the first half of the eightfold 




P0S1TIVK INJUNCTION'S. 1 27 

path (p. 44) was Kiid to be necessary for lay-brethren, 
the whole was for monks, who also had to observe the 
special practices already described (p. 76). 

All gambling and games of chance were prohibited 
(Tevijja-Sutta II). Compare Manu IX. 221-228. 

Sometimes five renunciations are named : — of wife, 
of children, of money, of life, of craving for existence 
in future births. 

Then sometimes three (sometimes four) corrupting 
influences (fisava - Ssrava) are enumerated — of lust 
(kOnia), of life, of ignorance, (of delusion.) 

Most important to be got rid of are the ton fetters 
(saruyojana. p. 45) binding n man t<> existence : — 

I. Belief in the existence of n personal self or Ego 
(sakkaya-ditthi) ; 2. Doubt (viiikitsi) ; 3. Ceremonial 
practices (sllabbatn ** slla-vrata) ; 4. Lust or sensuality 
(kama) ; 5. Anger (patfglia) ; 6. Craving for life in a 
material form (rupu-raga) either on earth or in heaven ; 
7. Longing for immaterial life (arOpa-rilga) in the 
higher heavens; 8. Pride (raana); 9. Self-exaltation 
(auddhatya) ; 10. Ignorance. Of these, 1, 3. and 4. 
with ditthi, ‘wrong belief/ are the four constituents 
of Upadfina. ‘clinging to existence’ (p. 109). 

The seven jewels of the law (p. 49) are— 1. the five 
contemplations or reflections; 2. the four right exer- 
tions (p. 50) ; 3. the four paths to supernatural power 
(p. 50); 4. the five moral forces (p. 50); 5. the right 
use of the five organs of sense ; 6. the seven limbs of 
knowledge (p. 50) ; 7. the eightfold path (p 44)- 

The five above-named reflections are — 1. on the 
thirty-two impurities of the body; 2. on the duty of 




THE MORALITY OF BUDDHISM. 



138 

displaying love (Maitrl) towards oil beings; 3. on com- 
panion for all who suffer; 4. on rejoicing with all who 
rejoice ; 5. on absolute indifference (upekaliii) to joy or 
sorrow. These contemplations (bliilvonii) in Buddhism 
take the place of prayer. The hist is the highest. The 
6 r*t is also a Sati-poUliuna (p. 49). They must not be 
confused with the meditations (Dhyanas, p. 209). 

Then come six (or ten) transcendent virtues c:ille<l 
Paramitiis, • leading to the further shore,’ for Arhats. 
These, too, every Bodhi-sattva had to practise before 
he could attain Buddhahood. They were; — 1. Gene- 
rosity or giving (Dina) to all who ask, even the sacri- 
ficing of limbs or life for others; this is meat important ; 
2. Virtue or moral conduct (ftlla) ; 3. Patience or toler- 
ance (Kshinti) ; 4. Fortitude or energy (Virya) ; 5. 
Suppression of desire (Nekkhainmn - naishklniya), or, 
according to some, profound contemplation ; 6. Trans- 
cendental wisdom (Panfia = Pnijiiii). To which are 
added — 7. Truth (Satyn) ; 8. Steadfast resolution 
(Adhiahthlna) ; 9. Good-will or kindness (Mnitra) ; 
10. Absolute indifference or imperturbability or apathy 
(Ujtckshfi). resulting in a kind of ecstatic quietude. 

This kind of memorial tabulation in lists of 4, 5, 7, 8, 
10, etc., is of course a product of later Buddhism. 

I now give examples from the Dlmrmu-podu: — 

' By oneself is evil done ; by oneself is one injured ; 
by oneself is evil left uudonu ; by oneself is one purified ; 
no one purifies uiiother.’ (Compare Manu IV. 240.) 

1 Better than dominion over the earth, better than 
going to Heaven, or having sovereignty over the worlds, 
is the attainment of the first step in sanctification.’ 




EXAMPLES FROM DHARMA-PADA. I ?9 

* Not to commit evil, to accumulate merit by good 
deeds (kusalassa upasampadi), to purify the heurt, this 
is the doctrine of the Enlightened' (165, 178, 183). 

* As a frontier town is guarded 1 within and without, 
so guard thyself (Dh. 3 1 5.) 

* He who holds back rising anger like a rolling 
chariot, him I call a real driver; any other merely 
holds the reins.' (Dh. 222 . Compare Manu II. 88.) 

' Let a man overcome anger by gentleness, let him 
overcome the evil by good ; the parsimonious by libe- 
rality, the liar by truth.' (Dh. 223. Manu VI. 47, 48.) 

‘The fully enlightened finds no satisfaction even in 
heavenly pleasures; but only in suppression of desires.' 

•One by one, little by little, moment by moment, a 
wise man 1'rceR himself from personal impurities as a 
refiner blows away the dross of silver." (Dh. 1S7, 239.) 

‘There is a treasure laid up iu the heart, a treasure 
of charity, purity, temperance, soberness. A treasure, 
secure, impregnable, that no thief can steal ; u treasure 
that follows after death. (Compare Manu IV. 241.) 
Universal science, all the perfections, supernatural 
knowledge, supreme Buddhaship itself this treasure 
cun procure.’ (Childers' Nidhi-kunda.) 

The following are some of the blessed states described 
in the Mahimaugala-sutta. They prove that Gautama 
required married men to discharge their duties faithfully. 

‘ The succouring of mother and father, the cherishing 
of child and wife, and t he following of a peaceful calling, 
this is the greatest blessing’ (maligidam uttamam). 

1 The body in often compiled to . city with nine gatm or n|m- 
tur*. which haw to bo guild ed (viz. two eyw, cut, ncetriU, etc.). 





THE MORALITY 01' Ml'bDUISM. 



UO 

'The giving alms, a religious life, aid rendered to 
relations, blameless acts, this is tlie greatest Messing/ 

•Reverence ami Iniinilily, contentment and grateful- 
ness. (be hearing of the Liw at the right time, tills is 
the greatest blessing.' 

• Patience and lowly speech, association with reli- 
gious men, recitation of the Law at the right time, thin 
is the greatest 1 denning.' 

• Self-niortiticiition and chastity, discernment of the 
noble truths, perception of Nirvana, this is the greatest 
blessing.’ 

Iu the Aiiguttara (11. iv. 2 ) it is said that no adequate 
return can be made by children to parents 'even by 
menial service.’ With Gautama, to honour father and 
mother was better than U> worship the gods of heaven. 

Many other examples might be given. Not only was 
a man forbidden to kill, he was never t<» injure. 

Then in the Rujovadii Jutaka we have the story of 
the one king ‘ who overcomes the strong by strength, 
the Boft by softness. the good l»y goodness, and the 
wicked hy wickedness ; ’ mid of the other king ‘who 
conqneiH anger by calmness, the wicked by goodness, 
the stingy hy gifts, the liar (alika-vfidinam) l»v truth.’ 

Other pieoepts require a man t*» exorcise charity and 
respect towards nil aged persons, teudicrts servants, and 
nni nulls. Ho was to sot an example of solf-sactilice. 

It is recorded «if (luut.ima liuddlia that on one occa- 
sion he plucked out his own eyes, and that on another 
he cut off his own head, and that on a third he cut his 
own body to pieces to redeem a dove from a hawk. 

Yet we repeat that with all this apparently sublime 




AIM OF BUDDHIST MORALITY. 



131 



morality no true idea of sin, at* displeasing to a Holy 
God, was connected with the infraction of the moral 
code. Nor did a Buddhist always avoid harming others 
from any true reverence for life. He was to cherish 
the life of others, but his chief motive was the fear 
that by not doing so he would entail the misery of 
continuous life on himself; and his chief motive for 
avoiding anger was that it was incompatible with 
that equanimity, which ought to characterize evury 
wise man who aimed at the extinction of his own 
personality. 

The ease with which charitable acts might be per- 
formed is amusingly illustrated by a story told in Hue’s 
travels iu Tibet. A certain zealous fellow-traveller (who 
considered that it was quite possible to be nt the same 
time a good Buddhist and a good Christian) invited the 
French missionaries to co-operate with him in perform- 
ing charitable acta to commemorate the termination ot 
a fatiguing journey, especially by providing worn-out 
travellers, like themselves, with horses. The mission- 
aries pleaded their own poverty, but to their surprise 
were told that they were only required to draw horses 
on paper, which were taken to the edge of a precipioe, 
thrown up into the air, and, certain formularies being 
recited, were carried away by the wind and changed into 
real horses by the power of Buddha. 

Let us by no means, however, shut our eyes to the 
praiseworthy feature oftho Buddhist Bystem mentioned 
at j-age 125— its recognition of the need of inner purity 
and sanctification — an inner Buddhism of the heart, 
without which even a monk was no true Buddhist. Ot 




THE MORALITY 01’ UI DDII18M. 



' 3 * 

course the Law could be observed superficially without 
any real heart-belief or heart-purity. 

When the inner heart-condition of a Buddhist is 
described, he is said to be walking oil one of four jxiths 
(tfattslro Maggii). and is then culled Ariyn ( - Arya), 
' worthy of reverence (distinguished from IVithng jatia, 
‘an ordinary professing Buddhist "). To avoid confound- 
ing these put! is with the eightfold path (p. 44) it would 
lie hotter to speak of tbein as four stages of inner sanc- 
tification. Dliyina, ' meditation,’ of four kinds, is the 
chief means of entering and passing t hrough these stages 
(p. 32), which once entered can never be abandoned. 

The first stage is that of the man — be he monk or 
layman — who is just converted, by an inner awakening* 
to true heart-Buddbism. This man has freed himself 
from the first three fetters — namely, delusion of self, 
doubts about the Buddha s doctrine, und dependence 
on external rites (p. 127). He is culled Nntfi|>unno. 
• one who lias entered the stream' (Srota-apanna). in- 
evitably carrying him onwards — though not necessarily 
in the same body — to the calm ocean of Nirvana, and 
his suite is called Sola pat (i. He can only bcrc-born ns 
a god or man. but not in the four lower births (j». 121). 

Mark tliat the doctrine of ‘ perseverance ' is a remark- 
able feature in this phase of the Buddhist system. 

The second stage is that of the iiuin who has nearly 
freed himself from the first live fetters, hut has a 
sufficient number left to cause one more birth ou tho 
earth, lie is called Sakad-agami (Sakj'id-ug"). 

The third stage is that of the man who is quite free 
from the first five fetters. Such a man can only be 




FOUlt PATHS OR STAGES OK MOI1AL PERFECTION. 1 33 

re-bom in a Brahmii heaven, from which he reaches 
Nirvftrja. He is therefore called An-agunri, ‘one who 
will not come back to earth.’ 

The fourth stage is that of the completely freed 
man who attains Arhatship (Aruhattam) in this life, and 
will at death expeiience no re-birth. There is, of course, 
a difference between one who has only just entered each 
stage of tho journey and one who has reached the 
terminus. And this Arliatship is open to all (even to 
women), though only likely to be attained by truo 
monks or true nuns. The name Arhut (Puli Araha, in 
Ceylon Rabat), ‘most deserving’ (root urlt), is signifi- 
cant of tbe highest merit ; for the Arhat is perfect, 
freed from all pain (nishklesn), from nil the ten letters, 
from all attachment to existence (upudiina) whether on 
earth or in heaven, and from all rc-creative Act-force. 
He has already entered Nirvana, and while still living 
he is dead to the world, lie is the Jivan-inukta. ‘eman- 
cipated living man,’ of the Yoga. By the force- of the 
fourth Dhyana, ho has gained the Abhjjfi&8 (Abhiflfifl), 
or * transcendent faculties of knowledge,’ the inner eye, 
inner ear, knowledge of all thoughts, and recollection of 
previous existences, and the extraordinary powers over 
matter called Iddhi (= Riddhi). In short he in Asekha, 
' one who has nothing to learn.' 

Although, theoretically, a layman and even beings 
existing in other spheres, might enter the stream lead- 
ing to Arhatship (see p. go) without becoming monks, 
yet it is evident that as u rule it was only likely to 
bo entered by persona who renounced the world and 
led a celibate monastic life. 




1 34 THE MORALITY OF niDDlllSM. 

But of Ariiats there nro three grades : — 

First, the simple Arlint (described above), who lias 
attained perfection through his own efforts and the 
doctrine and example of a supremo Buddha, hut is nut 
himself such n Buddha, and cannot teach others Imw to 
attain Arliutship, tliough he associates with others.. 

Secondly, and second in rank, but far above the 
simple Arlint, tin* I’ratyeka-Buddhn or Solitary Saint, 
who has attained perfection for himself and hy himself 
alone, and not as a member of any monastic Order, nor 
through the teaching of any supreme Buddha (except in 
gome former birth). This solitary hermit-like Arhat — 
a kind of concentration of isolated or selfish sanctity - 
is symbolized by a rhinoceros. Ho does not appear on 
earth at the same time with a supreme Buddha, and 
has not the same epithets (p. 23) applied to him. 

Thirdly, the supreme Buddha or Buddha par &rcrllence 
(once u Bodhi-eattva), who. having hy his own self- 
enlightening insight attained perfect knowledge (sam- 
bodhi), and having, hy the practice of the transcendent 
virtues (p. 128) and through extinction of the passion- 
and of nil desire for lifu, become entitled to that complete 
extinction of bodily existence (pari -nirvana), in which the 
perfection of all Arhutsliip must end, has yet delayed 
this consummation that he may become the Saviour of a 
suffering world -not in the same manner ns the God-sent 
Saviour of Christianity, hut hy touching men how to rave 
tliemselves. This is the supreme Buddha, the founder 
of U10 whole monastic Order, immeasurably superior 
both to Piutyoka- Buddhas and to all mere Arhats. 

He aaid of himself (Maha-vagga I. 6. 8), — ‘ I am tho 




AIUUT8HIP. 8RBIRS OF BUDDHAS, 1 35 

all-subduer (sabbabhibhfl) ; the all-wise ; I have no 
staina ; through myself I possess knowledge ; I have no 
rival (p&Upuggalo) ; I am the chief Arliat — the highest, 
teacher ; 1 alone am the olfcolutely wise (Sambuddha) : 
I am tho Conqueror (Jina); all the fires of desire are 
qutyichcd (sitihhuto) in me ; I have Nirv&na (nibbuto).' 
See p. 42 of this volume. 

This seems a marvellous assumption on the part of 
one who never claimed to be other than a man ; yet he 
had taken the idea from Brahmanism, which held thnt 
its suints could surpass all gods (Brnhini only excepted). 

Such supreme Buddhas, who are perfect knowers, 
and also perfect teachers of the truth, are only mani- 
fested on the earth at long intervals of time. 

Gautama is the fourth Buddha of the present ago 
(Bhadra- Kulpa). Ho was a Kthntriyn ; his three 
mythical predecessors— Kraku-cChundu, Kauaku-tiumi, 
and Kasya|Xi — having leen sons of Brahmaus. He is to 
be followed by the fifth Buddha, Maitrcva (a name mean- 
ing ' full of love towards all beings'), but not until the 
doctrine of Gautama has passed out of men’s memory 
after five thousand years (p. 181). In their previous 
existences Gautama and his predecessors were, (see pp. 
98, 1 1 2.) Bodhi-sattvas', ‘beings who have knowledge 
(derived from intellect) for their essence,’ a name borne 
by all destined to become supreme Buddhas ns well ns 
bv the first of Gautama's successors, Muitreyn. 

This coming Buddha is, as wc shall sco hereafter, 



1 In fact 0 11 u Ulna reiiuum-J a Bodlii-Mttva until tic mu' tliirl .v -Inui 
or thirty-five, when lie sttainul puf«t eniigliteiimnit unit HuiMImhaoil. 





TIIE MORAMTY OK IU DDIIISM. 



•36 

:m object of universal reverence among Inter Buddhists 
of nil sects ns a kind of expected Messiah or Saviour. 
Often, indeed, lit* is more honoured limit Gautama him- 
Helf. became In* is interested in the present order of 
tilings, in* well as in tin* future, while Gautama Ibiddlia 
and all bis predecessors have pasted away into lion- 
ising. 

Twenty- four mythical Buddlms (the lirst lieing 
Pipnmkara, ‘ Light-causer ’) are held to have ap|>cared 1 
before Gsiutama in preceding cycle* of time. M any 
particulars about tlictn are given, including their birth- 
places, the length of their lives and their statures. 
Gautama himself in said to have met some of them 
during his transmigrations. F.ven the trees under which 
they achieved supreme wisdom are enumerated. 

Sometimes the last six of the twenty-four are reckoned 
with Gautama Buddha as constituting seven principal 
Buddhas who seem to have lx*cn groujied together 
to correspond with the Bnllimanical seven > 1 11 nus of the 
present Kalpa. Usually, however, Gautama is held to 
be the last of twenty-five Buddhas. 

Clearly, then, the principal lines of Buddhist moral 
teaching all converge to one focus — to the perfected 

1 Tncir rum', m. Dlpnikara. Kaumlinj*. Mm‘iR»la, Summuu. 
RsivalB, Soohiln. Anivuma-dariin. P.dm*, Nir.sta, Pnilmottarn. 
SumodUs. Priya-diuwn, Arthn-damin, I>lmrm»-dw»iii. Sid- 

dhilrtlm. Ti-liv*. Pii-livn, Vipairin, Sikhin, Vii.n-lihQ, KrakuvimU, 
Ksnaka-muni (or Konig-dmana), Klivapa. 

’ Beginning with VipaAyin. Tbwe *ro tlx, only Buddlia, mentioned 
in tfeo Digltt-iukuj*. If Iho coming Bud, Ilia Mailrejn is reckoned, 
lien VipUyb moil Ur omitted. 




NIRVANA. 137 

Arlmt or rather to a still brighter point of light in the 
perfect Buddha waiting for his reward — the nectar 
of the eternal state of complete Nirvana. 

And this compels us to attempt some explanation of 
Nirvana. In the first place forty-six synonyms of it 
are given in the Abhidhaliuppadlpika, e.g. Mokkha or 
Mutti, * deliverance,' Nirodlia, • cessation,' Taulmkkliayu 
(trishnii-kshaya), •destruction of lust,’ Arupa, Khemn, 
Kcvak, Apavaggu, ' emancipation,’ Nibbuti (-nirvriti), 
•quietude.' Atnuta {Amritn), ‘ deathless nectar.' 

The following is from IUiys Davids’ Jutaka (p. 4 ): 
•One day the wise Sumedha fell a-tliinking, thus:— 
"Grievous is re-birth in a new existence, and the dis- 
solution of the body in euch successive place where we 
aro re-iiorn. I am subject to birth, to decay, to disease, 
to death. It is right, being such, that I should strive 
to attain the great deathless Nirvana, which is tranquil, 
and freo from birth, decay, sickness, grief, and joy. 

■ “ For ns in this world there is pleasure — the opposite 
of pain — so where there is existence there must be its 
opposite, the cessation of existence ; and as where 
there is heat there is also cold which neutralizes it, so 
there must be a Nirvitria that extinguishes (the fires 
of) lust and the other passions; und as in opjiositkm 
to a bad and evil condition there is u good und blame- 
less one, so where there is evil Birth there must also be 
Nirvana, called the Birthless, because it puts an end to 
all re-birth. 

■ ".lust as a man who lias fallen into a heap of filth, 
if he lieholds afar off a great pond covered with lotuses 
of five colours, ought to seek that pond, saving, * 15y 




THE MORALITY OK IIUDOHISM 



what way sliall I arrive there V but it* he does not scck 
it, the fault is not that of the pond ; even so where 
thcro is the lake of tlio great deathless Nirvana." ' 

What, then, is tho proper definition of Nirvana 
(Pali Nibhana) 1 In venturing on an explanation of 
w controverted u term, I feel rather like a foolhardy 
person walking barefoot over thorny ground. Never- 
theless I limy fearlessly assert two things about it. 

The first is, that the term Nirvana was not originated 
by Gnutuina. It was an expression common to loth 
Brahmanism and Buddhism, and most of its synonyms 
bucIi as mokshn, apavarga, and mrvriti are still common 
to both. It was current in Gautama's time, and cer- 
tainly occurs in the Maha-bhurata, parts of which are 
of great antiquity. 

In the celebrated episode of that poem called Bha- 
gavad-gita, V. 24, we find the following : — 

' That Yogi who is internally happy, internally satis- 
fied and internally illumined, attains extinction in the 
Supreme Being, and becomes tlmt Being' (Yo’ntdisukho 
'ntarit&nuw tathantarjyotir eva yuh. | Sa Yogi Biuhnui- 
nirviiruirp 1 Brahnia-bhuto ’dhigu&liati). 

The second |ioint is that it would l>e about as un- 
reasonable to expect that Nirvana should always he 
explained in one way ns to restrict Brahmanism 
and Buddhism— two most elastic, comprehensive, and 
Protean systems, which have constantly changed their 
front to suit changing circumstances and varying na- 

1 The n|HT»i.ni Braiinu-nirviioa is repeated Kvcml time* »Rcr- 
wards. M»rk. loo, thnl ono of (he god Siva’o n»meit in the Mala- 
oh&rkla i» Nirvfinun. 




NIRVANA. l ?9 

tional peculiarities at different epochs and in different 
countries— to one hard and fort outline. 

It is certainly singular that although the term 
NibbOna (Sanskrit Nirvana)— like some of the crucial 
theological terms of Christianity— lias led to endless 
discussions, it does not occur often in the Pali texts. 
The word Arahattmn, ' Arhntehip,' is more common. 

Nirvana, of course, originally means * the state of a 
blown-out flame.’ Hence its first meaning is properly 
restricted to the complete extinction of the three chief 
flies 1 of lust, ill-will, and delusion, and a total cessation 
of all evil passions and desires : , especially of the desire 
for individual existence (name and form). 

Following on this is the state of release from all 
pain oud from all ignorance, accompanied by a sen** of 
profound rest — a state achieved by all Arhots while 
still living in the world 1 , and notably by the Rmldha 
at the moment when he attained Ruddhahood. forty- 
five years before his final Pari-nirvina. Nirvana then 
is not necessarily the annihilation of nil existence. 
It is the absence of klosa (p. 124), as in the Yoga 
system, and corresponds very much to the Biahinanical 
A pa varga, described in the Nyaya, and defined by a com- 
mentator, Vateyayana, to be Sarva-duhkha-dheda (‘ the 
cutting ofl’ of all pain'). In short, it is Arhatship. 



' Hugo, drnlia, motuu Eleven free are mnetiiUM cnumenitcd. 

* Ur. libys Davids hold* tK.t llic Buddh* only »<lvoc*tod the »up- 
pr»siu!i of gcol drains ; Fausbiill lays * de-ire in »11 its liooi' t 
ogroc with the lutter 

* Whin 1 »ux on (he confines of Tibet, this «»s described to ni<> by 
a Tibetan scholar a* tin uncluogtable sl»tc of conscious l/<atit«ic, 





140 



THE MORALITY i>K IH DDHIsM. 



But besides Nirvana we have the expression Pari- 
nirvflna. This is not merely the blowing out of the 
tires of the passions hut nlw» the entire cessation of re- 
births, with extinction of all the elements or seeds of 
bodily existence. This took place when the Buddha 
died or ‘passed away’ alter innumerable previous deaths. 
Prnctiudly, however, in Buddhism the death of every 
ordinary being amounts to this kind" of Nirvana ; for, if 
there is no recollection of any Conner state of exist- 
ence in the new being created hy Karma, what is every 
death but utter personal extinction ? 

Now with regard to the Nirvana of Arliatship, no 
one can have come in contact with the natives of 
India in their own country, without observing that for 
a genuine aristocratic Brahman to allow others to see 
him give way to auy passion, to exhibit any emotion” 
or enthusiasm, is regarded as a proof of weakness. 

We can easily understand, therefore, that when 
the Buddha exhorted his followers to strive after a 
wholly impassive condition, he addressed a sympathetic 
audience. 

Long before his exhortations were heard in India, 
his fellow-countrymen held persons in the highest re- 
spect who claimed to have entirely BUpprcKtcd their 
passions. The only peculiarity in Gmttanm’s teaching 
was that he mad.- this object incuildxmt on all true 
Buddhists alike, without exception. And this state of 
absolute imperturbability is well indicated to the eye by 
the usual attitude of the images which, after Gautama’s 
death, were curved to represent him— an attitude of 
passionless compeeure, and dignified calm. 




XlBViNA AND PAR [-Kill VAN A. 141 

In the interesting Fuli work Milinda-prasna (Milinda- 
paftho), containing n conversation on the subject of 
Nirv&pa between King Milinda (Menander) and the 
monk Nfigasena (supposed to have lived about 140 ax.), 
the latter compares it to the pure water which quenches 
fire, and to the fathomless Ocean freed from trouble and 
impurities, which no river, however vast, can fill to 
overflowing ; and to the Air, which cannot be seen or 
explained, though it enters our bodies and fills us with 
life; and to Space, which is eternal and infinite, und 
lieyond the power of man to conceive. 

I trust I ahall not shock my Indian friends if I illus- 
trate this condition by a comparison of my own drawn 
from the unimul creation. In crossing tho Indian 
Ocean, when unruffled by the slightest breeze, I have 
•mnetimes oWrved a jelly-fish floating on the surface 
of the transparent water, apparently lifeless. The 
creature is evidently neither asleep nor uwnke. It 
certainly is not thinking about anything, and its con- 
sciousness is doubtful. All that can be affirmed about 
it is that it teems to be drinking in tlio warm fluid in 
a state of lazy blissful repose. 

No Buddhist, at least, could look at such a sight with- 
out boing reminded of this idea of Nirvana — the idea 
of, so lo speak, floating in perfect repose and peace and 
cessation from all pain, and all work, and even all 
thought, ou a kind of ocean of half conscious, half un- 
conscious beatitude. It is not consciousness, neither is it 
unconsciousness. Tt is symbolized by a full-blown, per- 
fectly formed lotus — a frequent emblem of perfection — 
reposing on a calm mirror-like lake. 




T1IB MORALITY OB IM DDIIISM. 



M2 

With regard to Puri-nirvi^t 1 - Uie complete termina- 
tion of migrations uml passing nwny of all the elements 
of bodily existence if tin's is to be distinguished from 
the Brahnumieal idea of absorption into mi impersonal 
spirit — whereby the Ego of |iersonal identity is de- 
stroyed — it is a distinction without much dilVervncc. 

Strictly, however, in Buddhism the dhetolutiou of the 
body loaves no surviving personality or individuality, 
and consequently Pari-nirvana is not properly described 
either as absorption into a void (sCliiyii) or as annihila- 
tion. It is simply the nlwolute terrainution of a series 
of conscious bodily organizations. The Buddha himself 
evaded dogmatic dehuiiions, and would probably have 
said : — it is not life, neither is it non-life ; it may lie 
compared to iufiuite space (sunya) which is not to be 
comprehended or explained. 

We should also bear in mind that although Nirvana 
and Pari-nirv&ria constitute the ultimate goal to which 
ull the morality of a true Buddhist tends, they have no 
plscu either in the aims or thoughts of the ordinary 
adherents of Buddhism at the present day. 

The apex of all the desires, the culminating |>uiiit of 
all the ambition of the most religiously-minded Bud- 
dhists of modern times, points to u life in one of the 
heavens, while the great mass of the people aim only 
at escaping one of the hells, and elevating themselves to 
a higher condition of bodily existence in their next birth 
oti this earth, and |>crha|te on that very part of this earth 
which is tin- scene of their present toils, joys, and sorrows. 

Ur tli»: i», Nirrina without remain* or remnant* 

ui the rkorn-j, 0 ( TX i.tenco. See Childer*' l’ili Dictionary, a.r. 





TRUE AIM OF BUDDHIST MORALITY. 



'43 

It only remains for me to caution those who may he 
impressed with the beauty of some of the precept* 
"t the moral codu and its theory of perfection, as 
ending in Puri-nirvana. against deducing therefrom 
too optimistic an estimate of the Buddhist system. 
Buddhist morality is like a showy edifice built on tbe 
sand. It is a thoroughly fair-weather structure, in- 
cajuible of standing against flood, storm, and tempest. 

It may be summed up in a few words os u scheme 
for the establishing of a paradox — for the perfecting of 
one’s self by accumulating merit with the ultimate view 
of annihilating all consciousness of self— a system which 
teaches the greatest respect fm the life of others, with 
the ultimate view of extinguishing ones own. 

It must, in short, be clearly uildcratood that if any 
comparison lie instituted Ikuwchmi Buddhism anil Chris- 
tianity in regard to the self-abnegation, or sulf-sacritice 
which each claims to inculcate,' the self to be got rid 
of in Buddhism is not the selfishness condemned by 
Christianity, but rather the self of individuality— the 
self of individual life, and personal identity. 

To be righteous in a Christian sense a man must 
be God-like, and to be righteous in a Buddhistic sense 
a man must be Buddha-like ; but the righteousness 
of the Buddhist is not the perfection of holiness by the 
extinction of sin committed against God, but the 
perfection of merit-making, with the view of earning 
happiness for himself in a higher state hereafter. 

For every Buddhist is like a trader who keeps a 
ledger, with a regular debtor and creditor account, and 
a daily entry of profit and loss. 




'll 



THE MORALITY OK IllOIimSM. 



lie must not take, make, or hoard money. lb* is 
forbidden to store up a iiionoy-h: dance in a worldly hank, 
but he is urged to be constantly accumulating a merit- 
balance in the bank of Karma. 

In conclusion, let the Buddha enforce his own moral 
teaching in his own way. by allegory and illustration 
drawn from mil life: — When asked by a Brahman 
• why ho did not plough and sow nnd earn his own 
bread?' lie replied to the following effect: 4 1 do 
plough and sow and eat immortal fruit (Amnia* 
Amrita) ; my plough is wisdom (pannii) : my shaft is 
modesty ; my druught-ox, exertion ; my goad, earnest 
meditation (sati) ; my mind, the rein. Faith (siuldlia) 
iu the doctrine is the seed I sow; cleaving to life is tin- 
weed 1 root up ; truth is the destioyer of the weed ; Nir- 
vana and deliverance from misery are my harvest.’ 
(Kasi-bhfiradvaja-sutta of the Kuttu-nip.it...} 

This may bo com pared wi tli St. Luke viii. i i- 15; but 
have wo not here n contrast rather than a comparison ' 
Perltupe some may think that the contrast is not 
unfavourable to Buddhism. Nay, possibly some may 
complain that I Imve nut enlarged sullhicutly on 
the remarkable resemblance Iwtwccn certain moral 
precepts in the Buddhist code and in the Christian. 
I admit this resemblance r admit that hath tell 11s: 
— not to love the world ; not to love money ; not to 
show enmity towards our enemies ; not to do un- 
righteous or impure acts — to ovorcomo evil by goud, 
and to do to others as we would be done by. 

Nay, I admit oven more: — I allow that some 
Buddhist precepts go beyond the corresponding 




BUDDHIST AND CHRISTIAN MORALITY CONTRASTED. 145 



Christian injunctions. For Buddhism prohibits oil 
killing — even of animals and noxious insects. It 
demands total abstinence from stimulating drinks — 
disallowing even moderation in their use. It ex- 
cludes all who aim at perfect sanctity from the holy 
estate of matrimony. It bids a man, if lie strives 
after perfection, abandon the world and lead 11 life* of 
monkhood. In fine, its morality is essentially u monk- 
hood-morality. It enjoins total abstinence, because it 
dares not trust human beings to lie temperate. JIow 
indeed could it trust them when it promises them no 
help, no divine grace, no restraining power ! 

The glory of Christianity is that having freely given 
that grace and that power to man, it trusts him to 
make use of the gift. It seems to speak to him thus: — 
Thy Creator wills to trust thee and to b trusted by 
thee ; Hu has endowed thee with freedom of choice, 
and therefore respects thy liberty of action. He im- 
poses no rulo of total abstinence in regard to natural 
desires ; Ho simply bids thee keep them within bounds, 
so that thy moderation may lie known unto ull men ; 
Ho places thee in the world amid trials and temp- 
tations and Bays to thee, ' My grace is sufficient for 
thee' and by its aid thou mayest overcome them all. 

Yes, the grand difference between the morality of 
Buddhism and the morality of Christianity is not in 
the letter of the precepts, but in the principle and 
motive power brought to bear on their application. 

Buddhism says : — lie righteous bv yourselves, and 
through youfselves, and for the getting rid of all life in 
yourselves. Christianity says Be righteous through 

L 




146 THE M0I1AL1TY OF DUODIIIOM. 

the power of God’s gift of eternal life in His Son. 
In a word. Buddhism founds its morality on self. 
Christianity founds its morality on Christ. 

The Buddha said to his followers Take nothing 
from me, trust to no one hut to yourselves, 

Christ said, and says to us still : — Take all from 
me ; take this free gift. Put on this spotless rube. 
Eat this Bread of Life. Drink this Living Water. 

Think you that any 0110 who receives a priceless 
gift., is likely willingly to insult the Giver of it? 
Think you that any one who aoeepts a snow-white 
robe is likely willingly to soil it by impure acts? 
Think you that any one who tastes life-giving Bread 
is likely to relish husks? or that any one who draws 
deep draughts at a living Well is likely to prefer thu 
polluted water of a stagnant pool ? 

Beware, then, of judging by the mere letter; or, 
should you insist on so judging, bear in mind that 
everywltere the Buddha's Law is a dead letter, because 
the Buddha is dead; just us the Sermon 011 the Mount 
would be a deud letter, if C’hrisl wort* dead. 

Finally, let me say to the admirers of Buddhism ; — 
ff you insist on placing its moral code on the same 
level with that of Christianity, lusk yourselves one 
plain question — Who would he the more likely to lead 
a godly, righteous, and sober life, u life of moderation 
and temperance, a life of liuliiiera and happiness — the 
man who has learnt his morality from the dead, 'the 
extinct Buddha, or the man who draws his morality 
and hits holiness from the living, the eternal, the life- 
giving Christ { 




LECTURE VII. 



Changes in Buddhism and its disappearance from 

India. 

In the preceding Lectures I have confiued myself 
chiefly to the consideration of what may be called true 
Buddhism as taught by its Founder and developed by 
liis immediate followers and disciples during the first 
two or three centuries of its existence in the land of 
its birth, India. 

To attempt an explanation of all the subsequent 
phases of Buddhism would, as I have before stated, re- 
quire the command of unlimited time. All I con ha— • 
to accomplish in the concluding I.eotures is 
a very general idea of the nature of the changes Bud- 
dhism underwent before it died out in India, and of its 
corruptions in some of the countries bordering on India 
and in North-eastern Asia. 

And I may add that those who desire correct views 
on this subject, ought not to trust to mere inferences 
and theories fouuded on a critical perusal of the so- 
called Sacred Books of the Buddhists. For it is certain 
that v ithout any practical experience of what Buddhism 
bus become in modern times — I mean such ati experi- 
ence as can only lie gained by residing or travelling 
in countries where Buddhism now prevails — the mera 
study of its ancient scriptures is likely to he misleading. 




CHANGES IX III IMtlllSM. 



r 4 S 

At the same time book-knowledge is indispensable, 
and it is essential to bring t*i the study of Inter Bud- 
dhism a scholurlikc acquaintance with Sanskrit and Pali. 
Even a knowledge of Tibetan ought t<> ho ndded. 
Nor ought the inquirer to be ignorant of the science of 
comparative re ligion, seeing that the principles of that 
science may throw light on many ditlicult questions. 

For example, a student of comparative religion will 
bo prepared to expect that all religious systems will 
diverge more or less from their original type in the 
hands of enthusiastic disciples, who ure ever inclined t<> 
amplify their rnastor’s teaching and to explain it differ- 
ently according to oacli man's peculiar temperament 
aod mental bias, until in the end the original deposit 
of siiriple doctrine becomes overlaid with layer upon 
layer of adventitious matter. 

Vn r will ho bo surprised to find that the tendency 
religious movement is towards deterioration 
and disintegration. Nor will it appear strange to him 
that the chief conservative force is antagonism. As 
time goes on disagreements among the followers of any 
great leader seem to bo inevitable, and always lead to 
Sectarian divisions nnd subdivisions. Vet it is this 
opposition nf religions parties that usually operates to 
mitigate the worst extremes nf corruption, and teuds to 
bring about re-forming movements. 

Even the progress of Christianity— us history shows 
tco well — furnishes illustrations of tho law of deteriora- 
tion, disintegration, and re-formation. At all events, 
it is certain that no study of the New Testament is 
likely to give a true idea of the varying condition of 




HECOIt TO THK OPPOSITE EXTREME. 



'49 



the Christian religion as exhibited at the present day 
in different parts of the world. 

But here it is important to caution the student of 
religions against forcing a comparison between two 
systems of doctrine like Christianity und Buddhism, 
which are radically and essentially opposed to each other. 

The unchristianlike incrustations and divisions which 
have marred the original teaching of the Ilead of our 
religion exist in spile of Christianity. They are not 
the result of any development of its first, principles ; 
whereas, on the contrary, the corruptions and schisms 
of Buddhism are the natural and inevitable outcome 
of its own root-ideas and fundamental doctrines. 

In proof of this let us revert for a moment to the 
insight we have gained into the origin of Buddhism. 

It will lie seen that the most remarkable feature 
of the Buddha's teaching, so fur as it has lieen stated in 
the preceding Lectures, was that he altogether ignored 
the existence in human nature of any spiritual aspira- 
tions. affections, or instincts higher than or diatinr? 
from the natural aspirations affections, and instincts of 
humanity; and of any force outside of human nature 
capable of aiding a man's own efforts in his struggle 
for salvation. Not that he reviled, or poured contempt 
on the religion prevalent among his fellow-countiymen. 
but that he found no place in his system for an external 
Ruler und Controller of the Universe, and would have 
stultified his own teaching had he acknowledged u 
Supreme Creator, guiding and upholding all things by 
His will, ami always at hand to co-operate with His 
creatures and listen to their supplications. 




'50 



CHANGES IV BlDDIlIfM. 



If it were possible, in short, to con il case into a cate- 
gorical statement the scattered utterances of a man 
whose teaching was rarely dogmatic, wo might affirm 
that, it was to the effect that for any man to depend on 
a Being higher than himself, or to centre the unities t 
affections of his nature on a merciful, just, and holy 
God, whore presence he yearned for, whose aid lie prayed 
for, and to whose image he longed to ho assimi luted — 
was a mere delusion, though perhaps a harmless one. 
He therefore set aside every supposed supernatural 
revelation ns useless and incapable of proof. He pre- 
scribed no prayer, he enjoined no form of worship, lie 
established no real church, and instead of a priesthood 
or clergy, ordained to aid men in their progress heaven- 
wards or to console them in the trials of life, he founded 
an Order of MonlcB pledged to denounce human life ns'- 
not worth living, and bound to ulwtain from all [virti- 
cipation in human affairs. 

It is true that he deserves commendation for having 
substituted moral conduct for useless superstitious 
rites, 'but his moral ooile hail no other nun than the 



suppression of lusts and desires (p. 139. noto 2), and his 
peculiar stoical philosophy had no other object than the 
removal of the ignorance which obstructed the path to 
true knowledge— the knowledge that :dl life is fraught 
with pain and misery, and not worth perpetuating. 

It is admitted, too, that its moral precepts were of 
a high order; but it promised man no divine aid in 
observing them, it supplied him with no motive power 
except the selfish hope of benefiting himself in future 
stateB of corporeal existence, and it provided no remedy 




RECOIL TO THE OPPOSITE EXTREME. I 5 I 

in case his attempts to obey its injunctions ended in 
failure. How, indeed, could it do any of these things 
when its only idea of sin was not the infraction of God's 
law, but the commission of an act fraught with evil 
consequences to the doer ? 

Furthermore, it was guilty of the inconsistency of 
bidding a man cherish a fellow-feeling for others ami 
diligently engage in all good works, while it made his 
true salvation depend on his giving up all love for wife 
and children, and setting before himself, as his final 
gold, a condition of absolute indifference and inactivity. 

What, therefore, T am at present concerned to point 
out is that, if the essential doctrines of primitive Bud- 
dhism were of the character thus summarized, a rebound 
from one extreme to another became inevitable, and 
that such a reaction was due to the very nature of the 
original teaching of its Founder. In point of fact it 
was not a development that took place, but a recoil — 
like the recoil of n spring held down for a time by 
a powerful hand and then released. And this resulted 
from the simple working of the eternal instincts of 
humanity, which insisted on muking themselves felt 
notwithstanding the unnatural restraint to which the 
Buddha had subjected them ; so that every doctrine he 
taught developed by a kind of irony of fate into a 
complete contradiction of itself. 

Let us take a few examples : — 

Buddhism, we know, started with the doctrine that 
all idea of marriage, or of happy home-life, was to 
be abandoned by wise men — by all who iiinied at 
becoming true Buddhists (in direct contradistinction. 




' 5 2 



CHANGER IN IHDDIIISM. 



we may note, to the primary Christian truth that it 
is not good for created man to be alone, and that there- 
fore his Creator created a help meet lor him —a truth 
confirmed in n remarkable manner by the Founder of 
the Christian Church when He gave the fu*t sign of 
His divine commission at a marriage ceremony). 

What, then, followed on the Huddlia’s original un- 
natural teaching in regard to marriage ! 

Of course an immediate result was that, although 
according to the Buddha'B ordinance any one who aimed 
at perfect sanctity was bound to lead a celibate life, tbc 
rule against marriage was admitted to bo inapplicable 
to tho majority of human beings living in the world. 
The mass of the people, in short, were nccesrarily 
offenders against the primary law of Buddhism. Though 
called lay-Buddhists, they were not 'wise men ’ in the 
Buddhist tense of the term (pp. S6, SS). There is even 
evidence that among certain monkish communities 
in Northern Countries the luw against marriage was 
soon relaxed. It is well known that ut tho present day 
Lama«rica in Sikkim and Tibet swarm with the children 
of monks, though wiled their nephews anil nieces 1 . And 
far woi »e than this, Buddhism ultimately allied itself 
with Tanti'ism or the worship of the female principle 
(sakti), and under its sanction encouraged the grossest 
violations of decency and the worst forma of protligacy. 

It was the sitne in logurd to the unnatural vow of 

Hii* nn» remarked by Hooker alien travelling in Sikkim. Sir 
Richanl Temple in bin Journal. (II. »|6) nuart. Hint be often found 
m»nirf monk, in Sikkim, and tlujr make no tucrrt of it- They are 
flee to migo the moiautic character when tl*y cluxae. 




HEC01L TO THE OPPOSITE EXTREME. I 53 

poverty. Monasteries uud Lamaseries now possess im- 
mense revenues, and monks are often wealthy men. 

Then again, what resulted from the Buddha’s ignor- 
ing the existence of n God, and telling his disciples 
to abstain from depending on any Being higher than 
what man himself could become ? Of course this was 
opposed to every man’s innermost sense of his own 
needs and of his own nature. For nmn is so constituted 
that he cannot be happy without loving and trusting 
a Being higher than himself— a Being who takes the 
initiative in loving His creatures and is the proper 
object of their loftiest affections. Nor can man in his 
secret heart regard either himself or unv one of his 
fellow-men as u being worthy of his highest submit ion. 
Nor can he set his affections on n blank or an abstraction. 
And so, in spite of the Buddha’s teaching, his followers 
would act on their own convictions. They would believe 
in lieings higher than themselves, and in a personal 
Creator knowable and lovuble by themselves, and know- 
ing and loving His creatures. Nay, they ultimately 
converted the Buddha himself into the very God lie 
denied, calling him ‘ The chief god of all the gods ' 
(DevStideva). 

Again, what was the effect of the Buddha’s leading 
men to believe that all supernatural revelation was un- 
needed — that all enlightenment came from within, and 
that, every man was competent to think out true know- 
ledge for himself by the exercise of his own reasoning 
powers, in the way thut the Buddha himself hod done? 

Of course the result was that the generality of men 
who shrank from the effort of thinking out truth for 




'54 



tuAtfOKs in nummisM. 



themselves, ami were wholly destitute of any faculty 
for doing bo, insisted on believing in a revelation from 
an external power, and ended in attributing infallibility 
to the Buddha's own teaching, and worshipping the 
Law of Buddhism— as a visible emlmdiineut of their 
deceased teacher — with all the ardour of entli«iHiantic 
bibliolatrists. 

Furthermore, what followed on the Buddha's deny- 
ing that any prayer, however earnest, could have any 
power to modify the operation of natural laws f 

Of course men longed for some form of supplication 
to a higher power, and ao the Buddha’s disciples not 
only composed prayer-formularies, but invested the 
mere letters and syllables of such forms with an efficacy 
which no other body of religionists has ever thought 
of attributing to prayer of any kind. 

They not only repented mystical sentences, which 
were called prayers, though re-allv mere charms, be- 
lieving that an orcult virtue was inherent in the 
words, but inveuted a method of manufacturing such 
sentences (Dhiimui) like marketable commodities. 

They fabricated prayers, in fact, by machinery, in- 
scribing them on wheels or on rolls inserted in cylinders, 
which in the present day are made to revolve by band 
or by the force of water and wind, and will possibly, 
with the spread of science, bo impelled by steam- 
power, so that eaeh revolution may count for an in- 
finite number of repetitions, and be set down to the 
credit of the owner or manager of the mechanism. 

Yet again, what was the inevitable consequence of 
the Buddha's rejection of the d'Xitrine that any benefit 




Stt-n AND DIVISIONS IN' BUDDHISM. 



55 



could accrue to human beings from religious services 
conducted by regularly ordained priests, and of his 
instituting in their stead an Order of Monks, who wore 
little better than a community of drones, contributing 
nothing to the wealth of the world, doing nothing of 
any utility to any one. und taught to regard inaction 
as the path of true wisdom ? 

Naturally, men craved for spiritual helpers, guides, 
and intercessors, and so by degrees these very monks 
conducted elaborate religious services, and a compli- 
cated hierarchy was organized in Tibet, even more 
intricate and for-reacliing in its nuniticationH than that 
of the modern Romish Church. 

And once more, what resulted from the Buddha’s 
objection to provide visible images and material objects 
of worship, with a view to stimulate devotion or aid 
meditation ? 

Of course concrete and objective Buddhism of sum* 
kind became a necessity. It became essential to make 
concessions to the weakness and infirmity of human 
nature, which required external aids, and declined to 
be devoted to an ideal void, or to meditate on a pure 
abstraction. Even the Founder of Buddhism himself 
seems to have felt, as wo shall sec, that bis bold on the 
memory of his followers would depend on their venerat- 
ing certain objects and symbols after his death. Un- 
happily for the purity of Buddhism, but quite in con- 
formity with the inveterate tendencies of humanity, 
the Buddha’s disciples pushed veneration of cxD nnd 
oljocts to an extreme. They were not contented with 
mere reverence shown to the relics of the Biuldlia’s 




CHANGES IN HI I»I»IIISM. 



<56 

burnt body and tlio shrines containing them. Tiny 
worehipped the tno under which lie uttumed Buddha- 
hood, the seat on which he sat. tliu prints of Ins feet, 
his sliadow supposed to In* impressed 011 rocks, the 
utensils lie used, the books containing the I.aw, the 
wheel which symbolized both the propagation and 
the diameter of Ida doctrine, and finally bowed down 
before carved representations of bis l-ody ami images of 
all kinds. It is remarkable that in Buddhist Countries 
idols are far more numerous than among any other 
idolatrous people in the world. 

Lastly, what resulted from the Buddha's teaching 
that the ultimate end to which men's efforts ought to 
be directed wan Nirvana— that is, the total extinction 
of all individual existence and personal identity ? 

Of course men instinctively recoiled from utter sell- 
annihilation, and so the Buddha's followers ended in 
changing the true idea of Nirvana and converting it 
from a oondition of non-existence into a stale of hazy 
beatitude in celestial regions, while they encouraged 
all men— whether monks or laymen — to make a sense 
of dreamy bibs in heaven, and not total extinction of 
life, the end of all their efforts. 

But it was not only this natural and inevitable 
recoil to the opposite extreme that ultimately brought 
about an entire change in primitive Buddhism. Another 
cause mutt also be taken into account. 

We have already explained the nature of the tie 
which bound Buddhism to Brahmanism, from the first 
day on which Gautama Kit as a disciple at the feet of 
the Brfthman philosophers Udraka and A lira (p. 29 ). 




MAHA-YXNA on GREAT METHOD. 



157 



Now, although tliia tie was anon loosened, and although 
the Buddha struck out a lino of his own, and n separation 
took place, yet the two systems stood on so much com- 
mon ground that they were always ready to draw 
together again. 

At all events, it is probable that one system never 
expelled the other, and that the constant attrition 
and contact which took place between Brahmanism 
and Buddhism, led to a considerable splitting up of the 
original fabric of Buddhism, involving, of course, many 
divisions and subdivisions of Buddhistic thought, some 
of which were closely allied to the later developments 
of Bnihmanical philotophy. 

In the Snrva-dursJUni-snugralin four principal sects 
of Buddhism are enumerated, which must have taken 
root early on Indian soil. 

These four were the Vtubhiishika, Sautruntika, Mu- 
dliyamika, and Yogidlra. Of these the firat. two with 
their subdivisions ' were realistic, and were established 
— though not perhaps thoroughly formulated and 
systematized — in very early times, long before the 
council of Kanishka ; while the two later schools are 
described as idealistic, the Madhvnmika being u Bud- 
dhistic form of the Vedanta philosophy, and tlie Yogft&ro 
ogreeing generally with the Yoga system. 

Indeed there is good evidence that Buddhism de- 
veloped in India a greater number of schools and phases 

1 Tlie Yftililuatiila wns divided into SmirtivHdn (ostium of lit. 
ml oxifclnicn of nil things), Mnfcl»*l>gliilca, Sammatlyo (mid to liuvc 
»wn fouDilfd by Uplli) mid Stbaviiu; the Saotrinliko Inul ul-11 it- 
owu aulxliviskiu. 





158 



CHANGES IN lU'DDIIISM. 



of thought than Brahmanism itself. Some authorities 
enumerate eighteen divisions (corresponding perh;i|** 
to the eighteen original disciples, pp, 47-73) which 
existed in king Kanislikua time — that is, in the first 
century of our era, while others specify thirty-two ; and 
in the fourth century we find the Chinese traveller 
Fu-liien (p. 160) making allusion to us many as ninety- 
six (Dr. Legge’s translation, p. 6c). 

We cannot wonder then tliat the author of the 
Sarva-darsana-aangraha expressed himself in rather 
strong language to the following effect : — 

' Though the venerated Buddha be the only one 
teacher, his disciples aro manifold ; just as when the 
sun has Bet. the thief and other evil doers, the theo- 
logical Btudent and others understand that it is time 
to set about their occupations, according to their 
several inclinations.’ 

Yet, alter all, it was chiefly in the North, and in 
consequence of the council held by KanUlika, India's 
greatest Buddhist king after A«oka ' (see p. 69). that 
the original features of Bnddliism underwent the 
greatest charge and became overlaid with coating after 
canting of extraneous matter. It was there, in Northern 
regions, in the valley of the Indus, that the IVotcan 
system called Mdiii-yfum muse, and grew, by the ojxjra- 
tion of the usual laws of accretion, couglomemtion, 

1 Another gnat king via Uni cvMmt»l llunlin-vanlhana or 
Siliulitya of Ksnsaj, who flourished nl«Ut A.u. 610-650, aixl who in 
•aid to b»ve founded on cro formerly much usod in Northern India. 
He ruled from the Indus to the dungr*. and his doings sre d«KriUnl 
ly llicutn Tfcisng (Bosl’s Records, I. 110-221.) 




M A HA- V AKA AKD HINA-YAKA. 1 59 

disintegration, and reintegration, into a congeries of 
heterogeneous doctrines, including the worship of 
Bodhi-Kittvas, deilied saints, and personal gods. 

Naturally the adherents of this wider method spike 
disparagingly of the simpler system prevalent in the 
South, whose sacred books were the Tri-pitaka of 
Ceylon written in the ancieut vernacular (Pali). That 
system they designated Hlnn-yflua, ‘the defective 
method,’ not donying however that their own enlarged 
system grew out of and included the simpler one. 

There arose, too, a third method, or ' vehicle ’ of 
salvation, called 1 the middle method ' (Mndliyama-yftna), 
This, however, is nut so well known, jujil, boiug a com- 
promise between the other two, never gained ninny 
adherents, tliough it is still ruccigni/<:d in Tibet — the 
Tibetans often speaking of Tri-yoiui, or * the three 
vehicles.’ 

At all events, it is only necessary for practical pur- 
poses to recognize the distinction of the Great and Little 
Vehicle — the Mahd-yiliui 1 and the Illna-yana And it 
may be stated generally that the inhabitants of Nepal, 
Tibet, China, Manchuria, Mongolia, and Japan have 
always shown a preference for the Mahu-ySna, or 
• Great Vehicle/ while the people of Ceylon, Burma, 
and Siam have always preferred the ' Little Vehicle/ 

At the same time, it is important to note that while 
the Buddhists of Northern coun‘ries are supposed to 
bo disciples of the Maha-yanu or Great Way of 

• Tl« Mtbi-yink is stiil to 1* connected with the XUittpuuikii 
*«|J Yoghuia. Schools, »ud the llma-yiim with tho VuilliAshlU tad 
Stum-in tiku. 





i6o 



CHANGES IV lll'IiDIIISM. 



Salvation, the Buddhism of each Northern count ry differs 
greatly from that of the other, and that the countries 
nearest to India have still further complicated the 
Mahi-yHiia system hy adopting mystical doctrine*. ami 
introducing magic and other practices suppose. I to aiil 
in the acquisition of supernatural | sneers. 

It must also be l->riH- in mind that, although the 
Muhii-yulia or Grout Method origiuutcd on the Indus, 
and tlie llma-yaiia or I.ittlo Method, on the tiangv*, the 
two streams of teaching were not always conlincd to 
these two areas, even on Indian soil. 

In point of fuel they were often intermixed, and 
the changes thus brought about in Buddhism will 
become more evident hy referring to the narratives 
of three well-known Buddhist travellers from China. 

Buddhism was introduced into China between 58 and. 
75 of our era', but it. was not till mucli later that Ch inese 
pilgrims visited India — the holv land of Buddhism. 

The first traveller of whom we have any record was 
a certain Chinese Buddhist monk named Ka-liion, who 
set out on 11 pilgrimage to India about the year .*,99 of 
our era, with the definite olject of searching for and 
carrying baek to China complete oopiu* of the Vinaya 
or Rules of discipline for the Order. He wrote a very 
simple and straight forward account of his travels’ — 
which lasted for fourteen yeans — and of his visits to all 
the spots in India held most sacred by Buddhists. He 



* ftofrunr I.tgge'8 Travel* of Ki-liicn, p. a8. 

1 Tnui'lntcil ''rom lira CIiIiwk by the Rev. S. Ral uud more recently 
tv Proleiior Lfyge. 




CHINESE BUDDHIST TBAVE1.LEIIS. l6l 

" ns followed by a Chinese traveller of less mark, named 
•Sang Ynn, who started al>out 51S a.d., and seems to 
have ended his journey nt Peshawar, or at least not. 
to have penetrated much further South. Peshawar, we 
know, was a great Buddhist centre, and there was a tine 
Stupa there, containing the alms-bowl of Buddha. Then 
after another interval a much more celebrated Chinese 
pilgrim named Hioucn Thmng 1 started for India (a. d. 
629-644). The narrative of hi- travels for about fifteen 
years is perhaps the best known and most commonly 
quoted of the three. In Chang Yneh’s preface 1 to the.se 
travels Itiouen Timing is described as ' a Doctor of the 
three Pitakns, and is said to have translated 657 works 
from the origiiud Sanskrit. In all the districts through 
which he journeyed ho loamt tha dialects and investi- 
gated the deep secrets of religion.* 

All three travellers give information in regard to the 
prevalence of Buddhism in India up to the seventh cen- 
tury of our era, and the narratives of two— Fa-hien und 
Hioucn Tlmang— are invaluable for the light- they 
throw on the changes which Buddhism underwent in 
the interval of their travels. Here ami there the 
pilgrims exaggerate,- especially when they venture on 
numerical statistics or write from hearsay; but on the 
whole their accounts may bo accepted, and we learn that 
Hioucn Tli sang found some monasteries in ruins which 
were flourishing in Fa-hien’a time, and that the Muha- 

1 According lo I>r. Ledge's orthography thi» imrnc aliould 1m 
■yrilten Httirn Ctmang. 

• See Beal'e ‘ Record* of the Wert. ro World,’ wl.idi gives i» 
translation of there trovtla in t»o volume*. 




CHANGES IS BUDDHISM. 



162 

ySna had supplanted the earlier form of Buddhism, 
or rather co-existed with it in iiiany parts of the 
South as well as of the North, and was to be found 
oven in Ceylon '. 

And this brings us fuce to face with the greatest 
change of all — the total dying out of Buddhism in the 
jdace of its origin. How is it to he accounted for that 
no adherents of cither the greater or lesser Buddhist 
systems — of either the Mahfi-yana or Illna-ytUlfc — are to 
he found in India at the present moment 1 

The problem is difficult of solution, and I can only 
offer a few suggestions for its elucidation. 

In the first place, I think it may he confidently 
asserted that the ditappcarance of Buddhism from India 
was a very graduid process, and unattended by any 
serious or violent religious revolution. 

"We have already alluded to the tolerant, liberal, and 
eclectic spirit which lias characterized Buddhism ever 
since the period of its first promulgation at Benares. 

Such toleration of the doctrines and ideas of co-exist- 
ing systems had its advantages, csj-ceially in the early 
stages of the Buddhistic movement. It certainly had 
a prophylactic effect in warding off violent attacks, and 
Lelpcd to promote the diffusion of Buddhism through- 
out the numerous countries to which it ultimately 
spread. In India itself, as we have already seen, Bud- 
dhisrn was never aggressive or combative. Its motto 

1 Hiouen Thmiij- doxiil** (lie Stlmviia fonu uf (lie Unbu-yiua in 
eiuJij*E °* f-ir south a* Oojrloo. 11c found many monks ►tudyiiw 
Irtth the Grtat aul Little Vehicles iu Ceutiul ludiu. Ural’s Itccoids, 
**• »«J. =54. >67- 




HOW DID BCDDIIISM DIE Ol’T IS ISDU ? 163 



everywhere was persuasion and conciliation. Coni]K>sure, 
tranquillity, and absence of acrimony were stan>|>ed on 
all its features. The very foundation on which it was 
reared — the very establishment of a celibate monastic 
Order, by means of which true knowledge was to be 
propagated— had in it something altogether agreeable 
to the spirit and usages of Brahmanism. 

We have seen, too, that the Buddha took care to 
show his respect for Brail mimical traditions, even while 
promulgating a philosophical theory and preaching doc- 
trines opposed to all sacerdotalism, priestly privileges, 
supernatural revelation, and Ycdic ceremonial. 

It does not, of course, follow that tin* great teacher, 
To whom the majority of Asiatic races have for cen- 
turies looked as their chosen example, hud not the 
courage of his opinions, and was not competent 10 fill 
the rAle of a religious reformer. 

The real fact was that he was too wise to enter upon 
any open Crusade against inveterate customs and ideas. 
The peculiar calm of an Indian atmosphere, though 
occasionally disturbed by political storms sweeping from 
distant regions, has rarely been stirred by violent religious 
antagonisms. The various currents of HindQ religious 
life have flowed peacefully side by side, and reformers 
have generally done their work quietly. As for GuuUuna, 
there can be little doubt thut his whole career was 
stamped with the impress of his early surroundings, and 
that he imbibed his tolerant ideas from thj Brahmanism 
in which he luul been trained. 

It hsiB been usual to blame the Brahmans fin I heir 
arrogaut exclusiveness, but their arrogance has been 

M 2 




164 



CHANGES IN DIDDIIISM. 



rather shown in magnifying their own caste-privileges 
and carrying them to an extravagant pitch, than in 
preventing any discussion of their own dogmas, or in 
resenting any dissent from them. 

The very essence of Brahmanism was tolerance. 
Every form of opinion was admissible under a system 
which made every person and every object in existence 
manifestations of the one Being, Brahmit 

The only delicate ground, on which it was dangerous 
for any reformer to tread, was caste. The only unpar- 
donable sin was infringement of caste- rules. Nor was 
any one tempted to adopt the role of a violent agitator, 
when all were free to express any opinion they liked 
without hindrance, provided they took care to abstain 
from any act of interference with caste-privileges. 

It does not appear, in short, that the preachers oT 
cither Buddhism, or Y.iislinnvism, or Saivi-m, or Naktism, 
or of any form of theso sectarian systems, ever incurred 
the special animosity of the Bnihuuuts or of each other, 
or ever indulged in very violent denunciations of each 
other's religious doctrines. 

In real truth, these systems of doctrine were all 
evolved out of Brahmanism. They were, therefore, not 
only tolerated by Brfdiniunism, hut accepted as the in- 
evitable outcome of its own pantheistic creed. 

No doubt each received at first n strong stamp of in- 
dividuality from its founder, marking it off from other 
systems, but with the lapse of years the deeper shades 
of difference grew fainter. Then it became a question 
which should become merged in tho other. In such 
a competition between rival systems ‘Buddhism had